Chapter 12 - The Biology of Learning & Memory

Question 1

What are the 2 major categories of associative learning? Which is voluntary? Involuntary? What is the other name for the voluntary category?

Answer 1

Classical Conditioning (involuntary) and Operant Conditioning (voluntary).

Operant is also known as Instrumental Conditioning.

Question 2

Classical Conditioning involves __ two stimuli: a __ stimulus is presented with an __ stimulus (which elicits an __ response). Eventually, the __ stimulus elicits the __ response at which point the stimulus becomes a __ stimulus, and the response becomes a __ response.

Answer 2

pairing
neutral; unconditioned; unconditioned

neutral; unconditioned; conditioned; conditioned

Question 3

This stimulus naturally and reliably evokes a response.

Answer 3

Unconditioned stimulus.

Question 4

This response is naturally and reliably elicited by a stimulus.

Answer 4

unconditioned response

Question 5

This stimulus doesn’t elicit a response.

Answer 5

Neutral stimulus

Question 6

This stimulus was once neutral but after a period of conditioning is now eliciting a response.

Answer 6

Conditioned stimulus.

Question 7

A __ box is an enclosed apparatus that contains a bar or key that an animal subject can manipulate in order to obtain reinforcement (used in __ conditioning).

Answer 7

Skinner;

Instrumental / Operant

Question 8

__ Conditioning is a type of conditioning in which __ or __ change the future __ of a given behavior.

Answer 8

Instrumental / Operant;

rewards; punishments; probability

Question 9

What do reinforcements do? Punishments?

Answer 9

Reinforcements increase the probability of a given behavior (preceding response).

Punishments decrease the probability of a given behavior (preceding response).

Question 10

Some cases of learning are difficult to label as classical or instrumental. List two examples and explain why they don’t fit.

Answer 10

Observational, as in a male songbird who hears it, then imitates it without a paired stimulus (or watching YouTube, then trying what you learned).

Also taste aversion - a negative association that one can make when eating then getting sick much later; it wasn’t a paired stimulus.

Question 11

Lashley set out to find Pavlov’s __. What does this mean, and what did he do in his experiment?

Answer 11

Engram (physical representation of what was learned).

There would be a CONNECTION in the brain from an area that represented the UCS to the UCR (before training). A THIRD connection would be made to a their area representing the CS to the UCS, then to the UCR. Therefore, he incisions in the cortices should SEVER these connections. He sliced up rat brains to prove it, put them through a maze that they’d used during classical conditioning.

Question 12

According to the Lashley, which portion of the cerebral cortex was more important than others for learning?

Answer 12

None; he sliced, diced, and at one time removed whole fucking hemispheres. The more damage, the greater the impairment.

Question 13

Lashley’s search for the engram lead to what two proposals? Define each.

Answer 13

Equipotentiality: all cortical areas contribute equally, and one part can sub for another.

Mass action: the cortex works as a single unit - the more (intact), the better.

Question 14

What 2 unnecessary assumptions did Lashley make about engrams?

Answer 14

1. Engrams lie exclusively in the cortex.

2. Studying one example of learning is equivalent to any example of learning.

Question 15

Thompson et al. proposed that the classical conditioning engram is in the __, specifically in the __ __ __.

Their experiment involved presenting an audible tone (_ stimulus) followed by a puff of air to the rabbit’s eye (__ stimulus) to evoke the blink response (__ response). After a few rounds of torture, the rabbits would blink (__ response) at the sound of the tone (__ stimulus).

Answer 15

Cerebellum (not the cortex as Lashley proposed); lateral interpositus nucleus.

neutral; unconditioned; unconditioned;

conditioned; conditioned.

Question 16

Thomas et al. were able to find the engram in the cerebellum - where, specifically, and how did they find it?

Answer 16

The engram was in the Lateral InterPositus nucleus (LIP) of the cerebellum. They recorded activity in various neurons, then anesthetized one of 2 areas while subjecting them to the torture puffs (both inhibited responses). When they froze then unfroze the LIP, the response was comparable to a control animal. When they froze/unfroze the red nucleus, responses were that of a CR - learning took place.

Question 17

STM capacity is __ (~ _ characters).
LTM capacity is __.

STM is __, and __ increases with __; recall requires __.
LTM has __ volatility, but details get __ with time.

STM recall is limited to __ bits of __ info. Once it’s __, it’s __.
LTM recall is __. If it’s forgotten, it can be accessed with a __.

Answer 17

STM capacity is limited to ~ 7 characters.
LTM capacity is huge.

STM is volatile, and volatility increases with distractions; recall requires rehearsal.
LTM has low volatility, but details get fuzzy with time.

STM recall is limited to small bits of immediate info. Once it’s gone, it’s gone.
LTM recall is high. If it’s forgotten, it can be accessed with a reminder.

Question 18

__: to strengthen a memory and make it more long-lasting.

Storing something in STM for a sufficient period makes it possible for the brain to __ into LTM.

Answer 18

Consolidate.

Consolidate.

Question 19

__ __ is storage of data that is being worked with. It is commonly tested using a __ __ __ - the idea is that any new data is stored in __ __ requiring immediate recall.

Answer 19

Working memory.

delayed response task; working memory.

Question 20

During the delayed response task, when is working memory being accessed? Where is it located?

Answer 20

During the delay.

Activity during the delay is high in the prefrontal and parietal cortices indicating the location in these regions.

Question 21

Describe a typical delayed task response using a fixation point and flashing lights; and what it’s testing. What happens if one side of the brain is damaged?

Answer 21

1. Stare at a fixation point. 2. Light flashes in periphery, but you must continue staring at fixation point. 3. Audible beep indicates to look were the flash took place.

Between the time the light flashes and the beep sounds, the location of the flash is being held in working memory.

If one side is damaged, it will affect perception of the opposite visual field.

Question 22

An experiment where monkeys looked at a fixation point while colored squares in the periphery disappeared for a short delay, then reappeared with one changed color is called a __ __ __.
Observations:
1. __ bursts in __/__ cells responding to color and location.
2. __ bursts in the same cells during delay - no __ cell stayed active.
3. Frequent __ bursts when squares reappeared.
Conclusion:
Working memory is __ over many __/__ cells in an __ pattern.

Answer 22

Delayed response task.

Gamma; parietal/prefrontal
STAGGERED; one
gamma

DISTRIBUTED; parietal/prefrontal; ALTERNATING

Question 23

Studies on __ help clarify the distinctions between (and among) different kinds of __ and their mechanisms.

Answer 23

amnesia; memory

Question 24

What is Korsakoff’s Syndrome? What is one of the most peculiar symptoms? Which demographic is most susceptible? What relay area and cortical are most impacted/damaged?

Answer 24

Brain damage incurred due to vit B₁ (thiamine) deficiency.
Confabulations: making stuff up to fill memory gaps.
Alcoholics (drink to the exclusion of nutrients).
The dorsomedial thalamus and the VM prefrontal cortex.

Question 25

Persons with Korsakoff’s Syndrome learn by repetition rather than repetition and self-assessment - why?

Answer 25

self-assessment leads to confabulations.

Question 26

Alzheimer’s causes memory loss - what else does it cause (list 5). How many genes have thus far been associated with early-onset, and what chromosome is one of them located on? What proteins are found to accumulate?

Answer 26

hallucinations, delusions, depression, sleeplessness, loss of appetite.
3 genes with one of them on chromosome 21 (Down!!!).
Amyloid-β and tau.

Question 27

What 2 proteins are associated with early-onset Alzheimer’s? Describe each. Also, what kind of inclusions do they form?

What remarkable macroscopic finding is associated with Alzheimer’s?

Answer 27

Amyloid-β and tau. Amyloid-β accumulates inside and outside the neuron. Tau normally binds to specific axonal sites; but hyper phosphorylation (caused by increased Amyloid-β) causes it to bind to cell body and dendrites.
Amyloid-β cause plaques (clusters of damaged axons + dendrites).
Hyperphosphorylated tau causes tangles (bad tau + degenerated neurons).

The brains of Alzheimer’s pts. have sunken gyri (less filled brain, so it makes sense).

Question 28

What (3) theories have been proposed as a reason for infant amnesia? Which have been debunked, and which are plausible?

Answer 28

Language: as it develops, it displaces previous memories; debunked by rats.
Complex reasoning: same as language.
Hippocampal development: development is rapid in some sp. - new neurons are displacing old ones. In sp. where hipp is fully developed, no infant amnesia; so it’s plausible.

Question 29

Two major brain areas w/ contrasting memory functions are?

Answer 29

Hippocampus and striatum.

Question 30

What is anterograde amnesia? Retrograde?

Answer 30

Anterograde: inability to form new memories after brain damage.

Retrograde: loss of memories formed before brain damage.

Question 31

Patient H.M. had his hippocampus removed because? What else was removed, and how might that have impacted memory?

Answer 31

Removed to stop epileptic seizures. A lot of his entorhinal cortex was also removed - it projects a lot of data to the hippocampus, so may have contributed to amnesia.

Question 32

__ memory is memory of factual information.
__ memory is memory of personal events.

H.M. could remember __, but he couldn’t remember how he learned about them (__ memory loss).

Answer 32

Semantic.
Episodic.

facts; episodic

Question 33

Patient K.C. had brain damage from an accident. He couldn’t describe an event from his life, but he could list facts. He also learned the Dewey Decimal system. What do these fact suggest?

Answer 33

That episodic, semantic, and procedural memory are all under the control of different mechanisms.

Question 34

fMRI studies show that describing past events and imagining future events activate mostly the same areas, including the __.

Answer 34

hippocampus.

Question 35

Nearly all patients with amnesia have better __ than __ memory. Describe each, and give an example.

Answer 35

implicit; explicit/declarative.

Implicit: PAST EXPERIENCES INFLUENCE BEHAVIOR, even when it’s not recognized as being influential (UNCONSCIOUS recall). E.g. - HM was comfortable around the regulars at the hospital.

Explicit: DELIBERATE RECALL of info that one recognizes as a memory (CONSCIOUS recall). E.g. - HM couldn’t recall having met the people he was comfortable around.

Question 36

__ memory is a special kind of implicit memory. List 2 examples of patients with amnesia.

Answer 36

Procedural.

KC - learned the Dewey Decimal system.
HM learned to read words written backwards (as seen in a mirror).

Neither have any recall about actually training / learning these skills.

Question 37

One study found that pt.s with amnesia usually can’t learn new info, such as arbitrary labels applied to objects, but what were they able to learn?

Answer 37

they were able to remember labels / descriptions that they devised themselves (“siesta guy”).

Question 38

The hippocampus is critical for __/__ memory, especially __ memory. Describe the experiment with the rat and the piles of sand.

Answer 38

declarative / explicit; episodic.

1. A rat digs food out of five piles, each w/ diff. odor.
2. It’s presented with two of the odors and is rewarded if it choses the odor it smelled first.
3. Intact rats pass: this demonstrates memory of (a) WHAT they smelled (EXPLICIT); (b) WHEN they smelled it (EPISODIC).
4. Rats with hippocampal damage fail.

Question 39

This task involves an animal seeing a sample object, and then after a delay, it must choose an object that matches the sample.

A second task involves an animal seeing a sample object, and then after a delay, it must choose an object that does NOT match the sample.

Both tasks test the __ and __ (aka __) memory.

Answer 39

Delayed matching-to-sample task.

Delayed non-matching-to-sample task.

hippocampus; explicit (declarative)

Question 40

__ episodic memories include much __ detail (the __, sounds, etc. relating to an episodic memory). When recalling a recent memory, activity in the __ synchronizes with several areas around the __ __. For this reason, the __ may be important to memory for __ and may coordinate and reconstruct __.

Older, less detailed memories depend mostly on the __ __, less on the __.

Answer 40

Recent; contextual; sights.
hippocampus; cerebral cortex.
hippocampus; context; context

cerebral cortex; hippocampus.

Question 41

The __ is heavily involved in __ memory (knowing where you are) and overall __.

We know that damage to the hippocampus adversely impacts episodic memory, but procedural memory remains. How might this impact navigation for a rat through a radial maze?

Answer 41

hippocampus; spatial; navigation.

Since knowing where you are (and where you just were) are partly dependent on episodic memory, a rat with hippocampal damage won’t remember whether it just tried searching a particular arm and will try multiple times. If, however, certain arms are invariably “wrong”, and if those that are wrong are discernible (rough floor, color-coded wall, etc.), then one should expect it to develop procedural memory and never try to go down the “wrong” arms.

Question 42

In the Morris water maze, rats with hippocampal damage slowly learn where the platform is (if it’s always in the same place, and they always start from the same spot). What does this suggest about the hippocampus, and how is the rat eventually able to learn?

Answer 42

The hippocampus is essential for remembering spatial memory.

Even though the rat’s spatial memory is shot, its PROCEDURAL MEMORY can enable it to eventually learn where to go (AS LONG AS NOTHING CHANGES!!!).

Question 43

PET scans were taken of London taxi drivers as they answered navigation and non-navigation questions; what was the finding? What other observation was made about the hipp grey matter?

Answer 43

Navigation questions activated the hippocampus more than non-navigation questions.

They saw a positive correlation between hipp grey matter growth and years of taxi driving.

Question 44

What are place/space cells? What can be seen when they are being recorded in a rat that is looking at two familiar paths?

Answer 44

Place cells are hippocampal cells that respond strongest when an animal is in a particular place and headed in a particular direction.

Recordings show that place cells activate in the SAME ORDER as if the rat was walking down them (you can ‘read their minds’ and see which paths they’re contemplating).

Question 45

What are time cells? What dual function might they perform? What can be seen when they are being recorded in a rat that is running on a treadmill?

Answer 45

Time cells are hippocampal neurons that respond strongest at a particular point within a sequence.
Many space cells also serve as time cells.
Time cells become more strongly activated at a particular time during the run if it’s associated a CS/treat.

Question 46

The striatum is part of the __ __. There are 2 main parts: the __ __ and the __. The striatum is likely responsible for gradual, __ learning.

People with __ disease do not show gradual improvement (damage is to the __ __ which projects dopamine to the __).

People with amnesia after hipp damage show __ improvement, but only after…?

Answer 46

basal ganglia.
Caudate nucleus; putamen.
probabilistic.

Parkinson’s; substantia nigra; striatum.

gradual; a very long time.

Question 47

Name the 2 maze tests used to evaluate spatial memory in rats.

Answer 47

Radial maze, Morris water maze.

Question 48

Address each of the following for the hippocampus v. the striatum:

1. Speed of learning
2. Type of behavior associated with it
3. Explicit or implicit memory
4. Impact of damage

Answer 48

1. Fast; gradual
2. flexible; habitual/habit
3. explicit; implicit (remember HM)
4. Impaired episodic memory; impaired learning of skills/habits/probability

Question 49

Other brain areas that contribute to memory:
anterior \_\_ cortex = loss of semantic memory.
\_\_ = fear
\_\_ lobe = piecing info together.
\_\_ cortex (part of the \_\_ lobe) = learned behavior and decision making.

Answer 49

temporal
Amygdala
parietal
prefrontal; frontal

Question 50

What is semantic dementia and AKA? Give an example. What brain area might be affected?

Answer 50

Loss of semantic memory (AKA semantic aphasia). A woman saw a picture of a zebra and asked what happened to the horse - she lost the data relating to the concept of a zebra.

The anterior temporal cortex may be damaged.

Question 51

T or F: Patterns of activity in the brain leave behind a path of physical changes, and these changes are physical evidence of a memory.

Answer 51

False - the first half of the statement is true, the second half is false - not EVERY change is a specific memory.

Question 52

In “Blind Alleys and Abandoned Mines”, 3 failed experiments about how memory is __ were described. Briefly describe them (the neurosurgeon, the roaches, and cannibalization).

Answer 52

Stored

1. One memory per neuron. Neurosurgeon applied stimulus, and it did invoke memories, but also evoked nonsense (like a dream).
2. Memory is stored throughout the nervous system. Using the yoked-control design, one roach was decapitated, and both were suspended over water with electrodes. The decapitated eventually learned to keep feet up - not replicable.
3. Memories in RNA molecules. Trained worms, then fed them to other worms; reduced time of training (duplicated with rats too). Couldn’t be reliably replicated.

Question 53

Cells that are near each other and fire together, wire together - what is this a reference to? What type of conditioning is this related to, and why (use an example using axons A and C, and cell B)?

Answer 53

Hebbian synapse.
Classical Conditioning.
E.g. - axon A weakly excites cell B, but axon C strongly excites cell B. When A and C fire together, they produce an AP on B; it also strengthens A’s connection. In this scenario, A is the neutral stimulus, C is the UCS, and B is the UCR. A is eventually the CS, and B the CR.

Question 54

This synapse increases in effectiveness because of simultaneous activity in the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons.

Answer 54

Hebbian synapse.

Question 55

Researchers study the Aplysia (sea slug) to study basic processes such as __ (decreased response) and __ (increased response).

Answer 55

habituation; sensitization.

Question 56

__ causes a decrease in response to a stimulus that is presented __ and accompanied by no __ in other stimuli.

After __, there is __ __ in the number of APs after stimulation, BUT there is a __ in the release of NT; and there is no muscle __.

Answer 56

Habituation; repeatedly; change.

habituation; no change; decrease; fatigue

Question 57

__ is an increase in response to a __ stimulus as a result of previous exposure to more __ stimuli (someone pinches your arm, then shortly after someone touches your arm and you flinch).

Answer 57

Sensitization; mild; intense

Question 58

In __ of Aplysia, a strong stimulus causes release of serotonin by a __ interneuron. __ blocks __+ channels causing slow release and delaying repolarization. Slower repolarization prolongs an __ __ which causes more __ to be released into the synapse, and causes an increased __.

Answer 58

sensitization; fascilitatory.
Serotonin; K+.
Action potential; neurotransmitter; response

Question 59

__-__ __ happens when one or more axons that are synapsed with one dendrite bombard it with __ stimuli; the synapse becomes more __ to that same stimuli for a prolonged period (mins, days, or weeks).

Answer 59

LONG-TERM potentiation; rapid;

responsive.

Question 60

Long-term potentiation shows 3 properties that make it a good candidate for the cellular basis of learning and memory:

1. __: highly active synapses are __, less active synapses don’t.
2. __: The tendency for 2 or more axons firing __ on one dendrite to produce an LTP more effectively than just one axon.
3. __: weak input paired with stronger input enhances the dendrite’s future response to the weaker input; similar to __ synapse.

Answer 60

1. SPECIFICITY: strengthened,
2. COOPERATIVITY: simultaneously
3. ASSOCIATIVITY: Hebbian.

Question 61

LTPs depend on changes at synapses that release __ (and __ to a lesser extent). The 2 types of __ receptors are named after drugs that stimulate them: __ receptors and __ receptors.

Answer 61

glutamate; GABA.

glutamate; AMPA; NMDA

Question 62

What do AMPA and NMDA receptors look like before LTP?

Answer 62

AMPA reacts per usual allowing glutamate to open Na+ channels.

NMDA stay closed due to MG++ - it’s charge is very strong, so it’s very strongly attracted to the dendrite’s charge.

Question 63

What do AMPA and NMDA receptors look like during LTP? Don’t forget to include the role of Ca++.

Answer 63

Bombardment of AMPA receptors allows much Na+ to enter and causes strong depolarization. Strong depolarization causes Mg++ to release from NMDA receptors which allows Na+ AND Ca++ to enter.

Entry of Ca++ activates CaMKII which initiates a cascade that eventually leads to the release of CREB.

Question 64

LTP in hippocampal neurons:
The effects of __ and __ are magnified by __-__ __ __ (BDNF).

Persistent activity at the synapses eventually leads to __ __ of NT into presynaptic cells, and that causes release of __-__ __ __ (BDNF). The formation and maintenance of LTP depends on all 3 chemicals (__, __, and BDNF).

Answer 64

CaMKII and CREB; brain-derived neurotrophic factor.
back propagation; brain-derived neurotrophic factor.
CaMKII, CREB, BDNF

Question 65

The compensatory process for LTP is __-__ __ (__). As one synapse strengthens, other, less active synapses __; this helps to __ energy.

Answer 65

long-term depression (LTD).

weakens; conserve

Question 66

Excessive stimulation of a postsynaptic cell causes release of? What does it do?

Answer 66

Causes release of nitric oxide, a retrograde NT. Nitric oxide causes many CHANGES in the PRESYNAPTIC cell including reduced AP, release of NT, etc. (“we heard you!!!”)

Question 67

In some cases, LTP occurs by the DENDRITES doing what?

Answer 67

The dendrites make new branches to synapse with the axon at more locations and increase stimulation.

Question 68

LTP depends on the production of several __; drugs that enhance or weaken production of these __ enhance or weaken __.

Answer 68

proteins; proteins; memory

Question 69

Moderate doses of __ drugs around the time of learning can improve memory by increasing __ (caffeine, amphetamine, Ritalin).
__ just before a test helps access memory.
Many Alzheimer’s pattens take drugs that block the enzyme that degrades __; __ biloba also has mild benefits (increased blood flow.)
Water hyssop (B. monnieri) works as an __ and removes _-__, so it may be a candidate for memory.

Answer 69

stimulant; arousal
Cortisol.
acetylcholine; Ginko
antioxidant; β-amyloids

Question 70

Piaget proposed that intelligence was thinking or behavior that is __ to the demands of the environment. Others think it’s __ thinking or __-__ abilities. Overall it’s difficult to define.

Answer 70

adaptive.

abstract; problem-solving

Question 71

Most scientists agree that intelligence includes 3 main characteristics:

1. __ thinking or reasoning abilities.
2. __-__ abilities.
3. The capacity to acquire __.

Answer 71

Abstract
problem-solving
knowledge

Question 72

In Spearman’s psychometric approach to defining intelligence, general mental ability (_) is general __. It’s a factor inferred from the fact that scores on cognitive tests __ with each other.

He proposed that intelligence consists of a known number of __ abilities plus an unknown number of __ abilities.

Answer 72

g; intelligence.
correlate

general; special

Question 73

All mammalian brains have the same __, but differ greatly in __.

Rensch demonstrated that within a __ of animals, the __ species learns faster (e.g. __ rodent sp. learn faster than __ rodent sp.).

Answer 73

organization; size

family; larger; larger; smaller

Question 74

Why is the brain-to-body ratio of intelligence problematic? What theory may be better (use parrots as an example)?

Answer 74

Marmosets and squirrel monkeys have larger brains than humans.

The total number of neurons seems to be a better indicator. For example, parrots and crows are very intelligent, and they have as many neurons as a small monkey.

Question 75

For human intelligence, there’s a moderate correlation between brain size and __. __ scores correlate with the surface area of the __ and __ cortices and with the size of the __ nucleus.

Overall, intelligence depends on the number of __ and the __ among them (__ and __ matter).

Answer 75

IQ
IQ; parietal; frontal; caudate

Neurons; axons; grey; white

Question 76

Men have larger brains than women, but intelligence is __. Several reasons exist:
Women have more and deeper __, increasing overall surface area.
Women have thicker __ and __ cortices and stronger connection between both __.
Women are better at __ skills, men at __ skills. Both are equivalent in __.

Answer 76

equal.
sulci.
parietal; occipital; hemispheres
language; spatial; math.

Question 77

Many genes that are __ expressed throughout the brain contribute to intelligence. Many of these genes are “__ of variation”; meaning that mutations lead to __.

Adoptive children’s intelligence correlate with __ parents when young, but correlate more strongly with __ parents as the grow older.

Answer 77

widely.
intolerant; deficits

adoptive; biological