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Psychology 105 > Chapter 12 - Development over the lifespan > Flashcards

Chapter 12 - Development over the lifespan Flashcards

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1
Q

Developmental Psychology

A

• Study changes in biological, physical, psychological, & behavioural processes over time

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2
Q

Relative contributions of genes and environment?

A

• Critical & Sensitive Periods

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3
Q

Critical period =

A

age where experiences must occur

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4
Q

Sensitive periods =

A

optimal age range

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5
Q

Developmental Research Designs

A
  • cross sectional
  • longitudinal
  • sequential
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6
Q

Cross-sectional

A

• Compare different ages at same time

Measure different ages at same time:
- 2020: survey 10 year-olds, 20 year-olds, 30 year-olds

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7
Q

Issues with cross-sectional

A
  • Different cohorts grew up in different time periods
  • Different experiences, cultural changes, environmental changes

• Technology; growing up in depression; access to higher
education

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8
Q

Longitudinal

A

• Test same cohort at different times

Test same cohort at different times:
• 2000: survey 10 year-olds
• 2010: 20 year-olds
• 2020: 30 year-olds

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9
Q

Issues with longitudinal research

A
  • Time-consuming
  • People drop out
  • Changes generalizable to all people, just this group?
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10
Q

Sequential

A

• Test several cohorts as they age

Test several cohorts as they age:
• 2000: survey 10 year-olds, 20 year-olds, 30-year-olds
• 2010: survey 10 year-olds, 20 year-olds, 30-year-olds
• 2020: survey 10 year-olds, 20 year-olds, 30-year-olds

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11
Q

What sequential research help avoid ? T6

A

Helps avoid the issues of both cross-sectional and longitudinal designs

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12
Q

Germinal Stage

A
  • Conception to 2 weeks
  • Sperm +ovum (egg cell) → zygote (fertilized egg)
  • Zygote attaches to uterine wall 10 – 14 days after conception
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13
Q

Embryonic Stage

A 
• 2nd - 8th week post conception 
• Life-support structures:
- Placenta 
- Umbilical cord
• Organs and systems begin to form
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14
Q

Fetal Stage

A
  • 9 weeks post conception
  • Muscles strengthen, systems, develop
  • Eyes open by 24 weeks
  • reaches age of viability by 28 weeks
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15
Q

Prenatal development involves the following 3 stages

A
  • germinal stage
  • germinal stage
  • Fetal stage
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16
Q

Genetics and sex determination

A
  • 23rd chromosome = X or Y
  • Females = XX
  • Males = XY
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17
Q

Y chromosome contains TDF

testis determining factor

A
  • Initiates development of testes

* Testes secrete androgens

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18
Q

Critical period for TDF ?

A

6-8 weeks

• Insufficient androgen activity = female

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19
Q

Teratogens

A

• Environmental agents that may cause abnormal fetal development

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20
Q

Sexually transmitted diseases

A

• Can pass from mother to fetus and produce brain damage, blindness, and/or deafness

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21
Q

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD)

A
  • Involve a range of mild to severe cognitive, behavioural, and physical deficits caused by prenatal exposure to alcohol
  • FAS involves a cluster of severe developmental abnormalities
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22
Q 
Children who suffer from fetal
alcohol syndrome (FAS)look different?
A

YES

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23
Q 
Children who suffer from fetal
alcohol syndrome (FAS) have brains that are
A

underdeveloped compared with

those of normal children

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24
Q

Maternal malnutrition

A

• Miscarriage, premature birth, stillbirth, impaired brain development

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25
Q

Maternal stress (stress hormones)

A

• Premature birth, infant irritability, attentional deficits

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26
Q

William James (1890) Suggested that the newborn’s world is

A
  • “Buzzing, blooming confusion”

* That is, that they are passive, disorganized, and have an empty mind

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27
Q

Was William James right ?

A

NO,

- Tactile, auditory, and chemical perceptual systems stimulated in the womb and operational at birth

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28
Q

Visual system not stimulated until birth

A

• 20/800 at birth to 20/100 by 6 months

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29
Q

Visual system develops in a ________ fashion

A

Continuous

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30
Q

When does he visual system develop?

A

3-4 months

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31
Q

Preferential looking procedure measured?

A

• Measure how long infant looks at a stimulus

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32
Q

Results from preferential looking procedure?

A
  • Newborns look longer at stimuli they find interesting

* Determine when ‘detail’ becomes interesting

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33
Q

Preferential looking to

determine preference for types of

A

visual stimuli

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34
Q

Tactile, auditory, & chemical perceptual senses operating at

A

birth

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35
Q

Newborns will orient towards significant stimuli such as

A

source of sounds, tactile stimuli,

odours

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36
Q

Newborn Learning

A
  • Habituation
  • Discriminate sounds
  • Acquire classically conditioned responses
  • observational learning
  • Imitate adult facial expressions
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37
Q

Audition sensory perception

A
  • sound localization
  • phoneme discrimination
  • music perception
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38
Q

Sound localization

A

U-shaped function, disappears at 4 months then reappears at 6 months

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39
Q

Phoneme discrimination

A
  • Exceeds that of any adult

- disappears by 1 year of age

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40
Q

Music perception

A

Shoes similar response of consonant and dissonant patterns as adults

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41
Q

Maturation development

A

Biologically programmed

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42
Q

Proximodistal principle

A

Development is from innermost to outer

- arms develop before fingers

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43
Q

Cephalocaudal principle

A
  • Development is from head to foot

* Head is large - growth proceeds towards lower body

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44
Q

At birth the brain is ___% of the adult weight

A

25%

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45
Q

At 6 months the brain is ___% of the adult weight

A

50%

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46
Q

How does the weight of the Brian increase for a newborn?

A

Cells become larger and neural networks form

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47
Q

Most skills follow

A

stage-like sequences

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48
Q

Does the age for acquiring skills vary?

A

YES

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49
Q

For sequence, does it vary>?

A

NO

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50
Q

An example of something that has a U-shaped function

A

Stepping reflex

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51
Q

Visual deprivation can permanently damage

A

Visual abilities

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52
Q

General Principles of environmental and cultural influences

A
  • Biology sets limits on environmental influences
  • Environmental influences can be powerful
  • Biological & environmental factors interact
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53
Q

Piaget’s Stage Model

A
  • Brain builds schemas to achieve understanding

* Schemas are modified to create equilibrium between environment & understanding

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54
Q

Assimilation

A

• New experiences incorporated into existing schemas

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55
Q

Accommodation

A

• New experiences cause existing schemas to change

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56
Q

Cognitive development

A
  • Patients stage model
  • assimilation
  • accommodation
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57
Q

Piaget’s Stage Theory stages

A

1) sensorimotor stage
2) peroperational stage
3) concrete operational stage
4) formal operational stage

58
Q

Sensorimotor Stage

A
  • Birth to 2 years
  • Understand world through sensory experiences & physical interactions with objects
  • Begin to acquire language
  • object permanence
59
Q

Object Permanence

A
  • Understanding that objects
  • Continue to exist even when they can no longer be seen
  • About 8 months
60
Q

Preoperational Stage

A

• Ages 2-7

• World represented symbolically through words and mental images
- Symbolic thinking enables pretend play

  • Child does not understand conservation
  • Thinking displays irreversibility, centration, animism, egocentrism
  • Preoperational children’s thinking also reflects egocentrism
61
Q

Preoperational Stage involves :

A
  • Conservation of Volume (kids dont understand volume properly)
  • Egocentrism
62
Q

Egocentrism

A

•Difficulty viewing the world from someone else’s perspective

63
Q

Concrete Operational Stage

A
  • Ages 7-12
  • Easily perform basic mental operations involving tangible problems and situations
  • Have difficulty with problems that require abstract reasoning
64
Q

Formal Operational Stage

A
  • Develops around 11 or 12
  • Think logically about concrete & abstract problems
  • Form & test hypotheses
65
Q

Assessment of Piaget’s Stage Theory

A

• Cognitive abilities associated with four stages of develop in same order across cultures (Universality principle)

• Development within each stage proceeds
inconsistently

66
Q

Do children acquire cognitive skills earlier then paigets believed?

A

YES

67
Q

In piagets stage theory, does culture influence cognitive development

A

YES

68
Q

Vygotsky: The Social Context of Cognitive Development

A

Zone of proximal development

69
Q

Zone of proximal development

A

• Difference between what child can do independently & what he /she can do with assistance

70
Q

Zone of proximal development provides insight into

A

cognitive abilities that are in

process of maturation

71
Q

Information-Processing

A
  • Development is continual and gradual
  • Not stage-like
  • Cognitive growth occurs as information processing abilities gradually become more efficient
72
Q

As children age:

A
  • Information-search strategies improve
  • Information-processing speed quickens
  • Memory capabilities improve
  • Metacognition develops
73
Q

Theory of Mind

A

•Refers to a person’s beliefs about the mind and the ability to understand other people’s mental states;

  • That is, we have theories about the contents of other people’s ’ minds
74
Q

When do we develop a sense of self

A

18 months

  • display basic emotions
75
Q

At age 2 we learn ..

A

Rules and performance standards

  • display guilt
76
Q

Temperament

A
  • Biologically based style of behavioural & emotional reactions
  • Relatively stable but predictions are difficult
77
Q

Research suggests that in terms of tempermanent

A
  • Extreme temperamental styles can predict some behaviours in future
  • Different genetic profiles for dopamine receptor among aggressive & non-aggressive children
78
Q

Erik Erickson’s theory

A
  • 8 major psychosocial stages
  • ‘Crisis’ to be resolved
  • Various crises are relevant at specific ages
  • Each stage creates new opportunities
79
Q

Is personality fixed in childhood ?

A

NO

80
Q

Themes / patterns that emerge early in childhood =

A

Important later in life

81
Q

Erik ericksons theory

A 
First year Basic trust vs. basic mistrust 1–2 : Autonomy vs. shame and doubt 
3–5 : Initiative vs. guilt
6–12 : Industry vs. inferiority
12–20 : Identity vs. role confusion
20–40 : Intimacy vs. isolation
40–65 : Generativity vs. stagnation
65+ : Integrity vs. despair
82
Q

Social-emotional development involves

A

Attachment and imprinting

83
Q

Attachment

A

• Strong emotional bond between children & primary caregivers

84
Q

Imprinting

A

• Biologically primed form of attachment

85
Q

Harry Harlow (1958)

A

• Contact comfort more important than

nourishment in fostering attachment

86
Q

Attachment process

A
  • Indiscriminate attachment behaviour (newborns)
  • Discriminate attachment behaviour (3months)
  • Specific attachment behaviour (7-8months)
87
Q

Types of Attachment

A
  • 6-7 to 18 months

* Distress over contact with unfamiliar people

88
Q

Indiscriminate attachment

A

Baby cries and smiles towards anyone’s, these behaviour evoke caregiving from any adult

89
Q

Discriminate attachment

A

3 months old, direct behaviours towards familiar adults

90
Q

Specific attachment behaviour

A

Around 7 or 8 months develop first meaningful attachment.

91
Q

Separation anxiety

A
  • 12-16 months to 2-3 years
  • Distress over being separated from primary caregiver
  • Shows similar pattern across cultures
92
Q

Goal-corrected partnership

A
  • Age 3-4
  • Share feelings

emerges in which children and caregivers can describe their feelings to each other and maintain their relationships whether they are together or apart.

93
Q

Strange Situation Test

A
  • Mother plays with baby (12-18 months old) - stranger enters
  • Mother leaves
  • Stranger leaves - baby alone • Mother returns
94
Q

Secure Attachment

A
  • Explore & react positively to strangers
  • Distressed when mother leaves
  • Happy when mother returns
95
Q

Two types of insecure attachment

A
  • Anxious-resistant

* Anxious-avoidant

96
Q

Anxious-resistant

A
  • Fearful when mother present
  • Demand attention
  • Distressed when mother leaves
  • Not soothed when she returns
97
Q

Anxious-avoidant

A
  • Show few signs of attachment

* Seldom cries when mother leaves •Doesn’t seek contact upon mother’s return

98
Q

Consequences of Attachment

A
  • Secure infants are better socially adjusted

* Nonsecure infants more behavioural problems

99
Q

Prolonged attachment deprivation = long-term risks

A
  • Not all in deprived environments at risk resilience

* Placed in nurturing environment at early age = well-adjusted

100
Q

The Daycare Controversy

• Attachment

A

High quality care did not impact attachment to parents

101
Q

The Daycare Controversy

• Social Behaviour

A

• No significant differences

102
Q

The Daycare Controversy

• Cognitive Performance

A
  • No significant differences

* High quality daycare associated with better performance

103
Q

Styles of Parenting

• Determined along 2 dimensions

A
  • Warmth vs. hostility

* Restrictiveness vs. permissiveness

104
Q

Authoritative parenting

A

Warmth/ acceptance + restrictiveness

105
Q

Authoritarian parenting

A

Hostility/rejection + restrictiveness

106
Q

Neglectful parenting

A

Permissive + hostility / rejection

107
Q

Indulgent parenting

A

Permissive + warmth /acceptance

108
Q

Authoritative Parents

A
  • Controlling but warm

* Most positive childhood outcomes

109
Q

Authoritarian Parents

A
  • Exert control but cold, unresponsive, or rejecting

* Poorer self-esteem, popularity, school performance

110
Q

Indulgent Parents

A
  • Warm and caring, don’t provide guidance and discipline

* Children immature, self-centered

111
Q

Neglectful Parents

A
  • Not warm, No rules of guidance

* Most negative developmental outcomes

112
Q

Gender Identity

A

•Sense of ‘femaleness’ or ‘maleness’ (2-3 years of age)

113
Q

Gender Constancy

A

•Understanding one’s sex is permanent (6-7 years of age)

114
Q

Sex-typing

A
  • Involves treating others differently based on whether they are female or male
  • From infancy onward, girls and boys are viewed and treated differently
115
Q

Kohlberg’s Stage Theory

A
  • Analyzed responses to ethical dilemmas

* 3 levels with 2 substages each

116
Q

Kohlberg’s Stage Theory levels :

A

Level 1: Preconventional Reasoning
Level 2: Conventional Reasoning
Level 3: Postconventional Reasoning

117
Q

Level 1: Preconventional Reasoning

A
  • Judgments of ‘right’ & ‘wrong’ based on actual or anticipated punishments & reward
  • Judgments not based on internalized moral values
118
Q

Level 2: Conventional Reasoning

A
  • Moral judgments based on conformity to expectations of social groups
  • Person adopts other people’s values
119
Q

Level 3: Postconventional Reasoning

A
  • Moral judgments based on general principles; following one’s conscience
  • Principles have been internalized & are part of person’s value system
120
Q

Criticisms of Kohlberg’s theory

A
  • Western cultural bias
  • Gender bias
  • Emphasis on ‘thinking’ not ‘behaviour’
121
Q

Carol Gilligan

A
  • Kohlberg’s theory emphasized ‘justice’

* Women place value on ‘caring’

122
Q

Conclusion to Kohlberg’s theory

A
  • Moral development occurs within social context

* Cognitive + behavioural components

123
Q

What influences internal regulatory mechanism – (conscience)

A
  • Internalizing societal values from parents
  • Temperament
  • Learning
  • Attachment
  • Emotional regulation
124
Q

Prefrontal cortex involved in some aspects of moral decisions?

A

YES

125
Q

Damage to prefrontal cortex area associated with

A

abnormal judgments of right and wrong

126
Q

The Adolescent Brain

• Cortical white matter within the frontal cortex

A

increases, especially in areas for impulse control and abstract thought

127
Q

In adolescent brains, non-myelinated grey matter in the frontal cortex peaks at around

A
  • 11 years for female

* 12 years for male

128
Q

The Adolescent Brain

• These changes reflect the

A

pruning of unnecessary cells by maturation and experience

  • This maturation of neural networks permits more-efficient communication between brain regions
  • Corpus callosum increases 10%
129
Q

Adolescent Egocentrism

A
  • Overestimation of uniqueness of feelings, experiences (personal fable)
  • Oversensitivity to social evaluation (imaginary audience)
130
Q

In adolescent cognitive dev., there is an increase in

A

abstract reasoning abilities

• More flexible, creative thinking

131
Q

When adolescents attain formal operational thought they can use

A

deductive reasoning to solve scientific problems systematically

132
Q

Changes in Adulthood

• Post-formal operational thinking

A
  • Is the fourth and final stage of cognitive development
  • Allows for new and more complex ways people can reason logically about opposing points of view
  • Accept contradictions and irreconcilable differences
133
Q

Changes in Information Processing and memory

A
  • Perceptual speed
  • Memory for new information
  • Spatial memory
  • Recall
  • Changes to prospective memory – less clear
134
Q

Crystallized Intelligence Peak in

A

middle adulthood and then decline

135
Q

Fluid Intelligence Begins to decline in

A

early adulthood

136
Q

Cross sectional studies suggest wisdom

A

increases with age

137
Q

Adolescent Social-Emotional and Personality Development

A

• Identity Diffusion
- No identity crisis yet; uncommitted to a role

• Foreclosure
- Adopting a role without going through identity crisis

• Moratorium
- Current identity crisis; not resolved

• Identity Achievement
- Gone through identity crisis; successfully resolved

138
Q

Erickson’s stages for transition to adulthood

A
  • Intimacy versus Isolation (early adulthood)
  • Generativity versus Stagnation (middle adulthood)
  • Integrity versus Despair (late adulthood)
139
Q

Birth of children dramatically changes the way couples

A

spend their time

140
Q

Marital satisfaction

A
  • Decreases first few years after the first child is born

* Typically increases after children have left home

141
Q

Establishing a Career

A

• Growth stage
- Formation of initial interests

• Exploration stage
- Tentative ideas about a preferred career

• Establishment phase
- People begin to make their mark

• Maintenance stage
- Careers become more stable

• Decline stage
- Investment in work decreases

Psychology 105 (9 decks)

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