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Anatomy and Physiology I > Chapter 12 and 13 Exam #3 > Flashcards

Chapter 12 and 13 Exam #3 Flashcards

1
Q

compare and contrast the nervous system and the endocrine system

A

the nervous system directs immediate responses to stimuli and provides and interprets sensory information about external conditions; the endocrine system directs long-term changes in the activities of other organ system, adjusts metabolic activity and energy used by the body and controls many structural and functional changes during development
nervous system uses electrical signals and neurotransmitters to change cells and the endocrine system uses hormones to change cells

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2
Q

what are the different divisions of the spinal cord and what structures do they contain?

A

The central nervous system contains the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system contains everything else.

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3
Q

what are the functions of the division of the nervous system?

A

the cns is responsible for integrating, processing, and coordinating sensory data and motor commands. the pns delivers sensory information to the CNS and carries motor commands to peripheral tissues and systems.

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4
Q

how are the different divisions of the nervous system used?

A

the sensory division of the pns detects stimuli inside and outside the body. it sends the information to the brain in the CNS. the brain makes the decision and then activates the motor division of the PNS. the motor division activates the effector tissues.

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5
Q

what is the effector tissues

A

adipose tissue, glands, muscles

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6
Q

somatic sensory division

A

soma- body; bones, joints, superficial skin.

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7
Q

visceral sensory division

A

viscera- organs; organ pain and internal pain.

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8
Q

visceral motor division

A

smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands, adipose tissues; involuntary/ automatic muscle tissue. autonomic nervous system

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9
Q

somatic motor division

A

skeletal muscle tissue; the somatic motor division is the voluntary muscle tissue.

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10
Q

autonomic nervous system

A

parasympathetic vs sympathetic; rest and digest vs fight or flight.
sympathetic: dilate pupil. inhibit salvation, relax bronchi, accelerates heart, inhibit digestive activity, stimulate glucose release by liver (ATP), secretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine from kidney, relaxes bladder, contracts rectum

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11
Q

describe the general characteristics of neurons

A

the cell body (neurosoma), lots of dendrites, a single axon, and telodendria

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12
Q

cell body (neurosoma)

A

large centrally located nucleus with prominent nucleolus. organelles produce energy and synthesize. nissl bodies give the soma a grey coloring (grey matter)

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13
Q

dendrite

A

dendr=tree, ite=little; highly branched structures that participate in synapses; detect stimuli from other neurons. the more branching= the more information= better decisions; represent 80-90% of neuron surface area

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14
Q

axon

A

very long (up to 1 meter) cytoplasmic process; generally unbranches but may have axon collaterals. generate action potentials. first segment known as the initial segment will arise from thicker region of soma called the axon hillock; initial segment + axon hillock = trigger zone. axoplasm participates in axoplasmic transport; anterograde flow = soma to axon; retrograde flow = axon to soma.

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15
Q

telodendria

A

the terminal end of the axon is highly branches into telodendria to terminate as axon terminals (synaptic knobs) which are small bulbous structures full of neurotransmitters

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16
Q

sketch the major anatomical structures of a neuron

A

O<I———<;
body-dendrites-axonhillock-axon in between dashes and dashes are myelin sheath-ends are the telondria branching and the dots are the synaptic knobs

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17
Q

structural classifications of neurons

A

multipolar neuron: lots of dendrites attached to the cell body; most common
bipolar neuron: one dendrite and one axon attached to cell body; in places with senses
unipolar neuron: one single process but a dendrite going in and one axon going out. first order neuron
anaxonic: have more than two processes but no axons and only dendrites

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18
Q

functional classifications of neurons

A

sensory neurons (afferent): detect stimuli
interneurons: make decisions; 90% of all neurons
motor neurons (efferent): activate effector tissue

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19
Q

glial cells in CNS

A

astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, ependymal cells, microglial cells

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20
Q

glial cells in pns

A

satellite cells and schwann cells

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21
Q

what are glial cells

A

supporting cell sin the pns and cns

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22
Q

astrocytes

A

most numerous; form blood brain barrier using perivascular feet - seals gaps in blood vessels to filter what goes in and out of brain; structural framework; repair damaged nervous tissue

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23
Q

ependymal cells

A

produce and maintain cerebrospinal fluid; simple cuboidal E.T. ciliated

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24
Q

oligodendtrocytes

A

myelinate axons in CNS

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25
Q

microglial cells

A

phagocytic macrophages - large eaters; looks for cellular waste and pathogens

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26
Q

satellite cells

A

surround cell bodies; regulate interstitial fluid around the neuron

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27
Q

schwann cells

A

myelinate axon in PNS;

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28
Q

what is the basic structure of myelin

A

made from plasma membrane of the myelinating cell; 80% lipids and 20% proteins; myelination process begins about week 14 of fetal development and continues throught adolescence; corresponds with nervous system development
internode - segment of myelinated axons
node of ranvier - gaps of unmyelinated axons

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29
Q

myelination process in PNS

A

schwann cells physically wrap around the axon and makes lots of layers. squeezes cytoplasm out as it wraps. outermost layer is called the neurilemma; with nucleus and cellular machinery

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30
Q

myelination process in CNS

A

one oligodendrocyte will myelinate several internodes at once. sends out processes out and wrap from the outside in, no neurilemma

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31
Q

what are the functions of the myelin sheath

A

insulates the axon; separating the axon from the surrounding extracellular fluid.
increases conduction speed; conduction speed is how fast a signal can travel down an axon.
the larger the diameter the faster we send the signal and if its myelinated its faster; small, unmyelinated: .5-2m/s; large myelinated fibers: up to 120 m/s

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32
Q

4 types of membrane channels

A

leak or nongated channel (always open), chemically gated, voltage gated, mechanically gated,

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33
Q

multiple sclerosis

A

autoimmune disease; oligodendrocytes and myelin sheath in CNS deteriorate; the myelin is replaced by scar tissue; the scar tissues interferes with the transmission of signals in the nerves. symptoms: double/blurred vision, tremors, numbness, weakness and the paralysis - legs then arms

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34
Q

what is the charge of the resting membrane potential of a neuron

A

-70 mVl the inner surface of the plasma membrane is negatively charged with respect to the exterior
ICF is full of potassium ions and large anionic proteins = negative charge
ECF is full of sodium ions = positive charge

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35
Q

potassium ion gradients

A

at normal resting potential, an electrical gradient opposes the chemical gradient for potassium ions. the net electrochemical gradient tends to force potassium ions out of the cell.

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36
Q

sodium ion gradients

A

at normal resting potential, chemical and electrical gradients combine to drive sodium ions into the cell.

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37
Q

sodium-potassium pump

A

pumps 3 sodium ions out and 2 potassium ions in with every pump; requires 1 molecule fo ATP;

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38
Q

graded (local) potential

A

local stimulus that spreads a short distance usually in the dendrites and soma;

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39
Q

concentration gradient

A

icf is high in potassium ions and these ions tend to move through potassium leak channels; ecf is high in sodium ions so they move into the cell through sodium leak channels.

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40
Q

electrical gradient

A

there are more positive charges outside the plasma membrane and negatively charged protein molecules within the cytosol cannot cross the plasma membrane so there are more negative charges on the cytosol side of the plasma membrane.

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41
Q

excitatory post-synaptic potentials

A

brings postsynaptic cell closer to threshold

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42
Q

inhibitory post-synaptic potential

A

take the postsynaptic cell farther from threshold

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43
Q

3 characteristics of action potential

A
  1. all or none principle: if threshold is reached an action potential is formed
  2. non-decremental: the last action potential formed has the same strength as the first - doesn’t lose strength as it travels along the axon
  3. irreversible: once an action potential is created it can’t be stopped by non-pathological means
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44
Q

why are action potentials only formed in the axon and not in other parts of the neuron

A

only formed due to the density of voltage gated sodium channel.

45
Q

describe the different stages of an action potential in detail

A
  1. a local potential depolarizes the axolemma of the trigger zone to threshold
  2. voltage-gated Na+ channels activate, Na+ enter and the axon section depolarizes
  3. Na+ channels inactivate and voltage-gated K+ channels activate, so NA+ stop entering and K+ exit the axon - repolarization begins
  4. Na+ channels return to the resting state and repolarization continues
  5. the axolemma may hyperpolarize before K+ channels return to the resting state; after this, the axolemma returns to the resting membrane potential
46
Q

what are the different refractory preiods

A

absolute refractory, relative refactory

47
Q

absolute refractory period

A

time period when no stimulus of any strength will be able to produce an action potential

48
Q

relative refractory period

A

hyperpolarization time period when only an extremely strong stimulus will be able to produce action potential; during hyperpolarization the K+ gates are still open if Na+ starts to enter the cell can be offset by K+ leaving

49
Q

continuous conduction

A

an unmyelinated axon; an action potential appears to move across the surface of the membrane in a series of tiny steps;

50
Q

saltatory propogation

A

“skip” majority of axons; Na+ inflow at node generated action potenial; depolarization at next node opens Na+ channel triggering new action potential; action potentials happen at nodes of ranvier;

51
Q

presynaptic neuron

A

takes the action potential and send the signal; release a neurotransmitter

52
Q

postsynaptic neuron

A

target cell that has receptors for specific neurotransmitter

53
Q

describe the basic anatomy of the spinal cord including surface anatomy

A

part of the CNS that extends from the foramen magnum to L1/L2; conus medullaris end at L1/L2; averages 1.8 cm thick and 45 cm long; gives rise to 31 pairs of spinal nervesl; a spinal cord segment is a section of the spinal cord that gives rise to spinal nerves

54
Q

what are the meningeal layers

A

dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater; functions to protect and separate the spinal cord from the surrounding tissue; contains CSF

55
Q

dura mater (tough mother)

A

outermost and thickest layer; continuous with the dura of the brain; contains dense collagen fibers that are oriented along the long axis of the cord

56
Q

arachnoid mater (spider like)

A

adheres to the dura; separated from pia by fibers spanning the subarachnoid space that is filled with CSF; lumbar puncture takes sample of CSF

57
Q

pia mater (delicate mother)

A

delicate membrane that follows contours of spinal cord and continues inferiorly as filium terminale; consists of elastic and collagen fibers;

58
Q

spina bifida

A

condition present at birth where one or more vertebrae fail to complete vertebral arch to enclose the spinal cord. the meninges form outside the body; folic acid prevents this

59
Q

white matter

A

consists of bundles of myelinated axons;

60
Q

gray matter

A

Cell bodies

61
Q

tracts

A

bundles of axons in the CNS

62
Q

nerves

A

bundles of axons in PNS

63
Q

what is the trigger zone?

A

axon hillock

64
Q

composition of gray matter

A

central core of spinal cord H-shaped. pair of posterior horns that only carry sensory fibers; pair of anterior horns that only carry motor fibers

65
Q

gray commissure

A

connect left and right sides of gray matter and has a central canal that is filled with ependymal cells and CSF

66
Q

decussation

A

crossing at the midline that occurs in many tracts so that brain senses and controls contralateral sides of the body

67
Q

composition of white matter

A

divided into posterior, lateral and anterior column

68
Q

contralateral

A

opposite side; motor neuron starts on left and ends on right

69
Q

ipsilateral

A

same side; starting and ending on one side (no decussation)

70
Q

ascending tract

A

carry sensory information to CNS (brain); 3 order chain: first, second and third order neuron

71
Q

descending tract

A

carry motor information (effector tissue)

72
Q

ascending: first order neuron

A

sensory neuron; detect stimulus
cell body: posterior root ganglion
synapses: posterior horn

73
Q

ascending: second order neuron

A

cell body: posterior horn
synapse: thalamus

74
Q

ascending: third order neuron

A

cell body: thalamus
synapse: sensory cortex

75
Q

pain pathway

A

ascending pathways;
spinothalamic tract: spinal cord to thalamus carries more somatic pain signals
spinoreticular tract: spinal cord to reticular formation activates visceral, emotional, and behavioral reactions to pain

76
Q

bradykinin

A

most potent pain stimulus; stimulates nociceptors and makes us aware of injury; also histamine, prostaglandin, serotonin

77
Q

enkephalins

A

analgesic mechanism that is 200 times more potent than morphine; produced within the body

78
Q

referred pain

A

pain in viscera often mistakenly thought to come from the skin or other superficial sites
heart attack: heart pain felt in shoulder or arm because both send pain input to spinal cord segments T1 to T5

79
Q

pain

A

discomfort caused by tissue injury or noxious simulation

80
Q

somatic pain

A

skin, muscles, joints

81
Q

visceral pain

A

stretch, chemical irritants (food poisoning) or ischemia (poor blood supply) of viscera: poorly localized

82
Q

descending tract: upper motor neuron

A

cell body: motor cortex
synapse: anterior horn

83
Q

descending tract: lower motor neuron

A

cell body: anterior horn
synapse: effector tissue

84
Q

effector tissues

A

adipose tissue
muscle tissue
glands

85
Q

ganglion

A

cluster of cell bodies in PNS

86
Q

nerves

A

cluster of cell bodies in CNS

87
Q

endoneurium

A

surrounds individual axons/neurilemma

88
Q

perineurium

A

surrounds nerve fascicle

89
Q

epineurium

A

surrounds entire nerve

90
Q

nerve fascicle

A

bundle of axons

91
Q

how is the spinal nerve formed

A

a posterior rootlet(6-8; sensory) and anterior(6-8; motor) rootlet come together to form roots;

92
Q

how many spinal nerves are there in the body and in each spinal region

A

31 pairs; 8- cervical; 12- thoracic; 5- lumbar; 5- sacral; 1coccygeal

93
Q

where are the spinal nerves located in relation to the spine

A

cervical nerves exit above corresponding vertebra except C8 is in between T1 and C7; thoracic and under exit below vertebra in intervertebral foramina

94
Q

what type of info: posterior root ganglion

A

carries sensory information

95
Q

spinal nerve

A

mixing; decussation occurs

96
Q

anterior and posterior rami

A

mixed; motor and sensory information

97
Q

where do rami run in the body

A

posterior rami: skin and structures of back
anterior rami: everything else

98
Q

where are nerve plexuses found in the body

A

cervical, brachial, lumbar, lumbosacral, coccygeal

99
Q

hand of benediction

A

due to median nerve palsy; caused by inability to flex 3 1/2 fingers

100
Q

wrist drop

A

palsy of the radial nerve; loss of motor innveration to the wrist extensors in the forearm; usually damaged proximal to the elbow joint

101
Q

what nerve is involved in carpal tunnel

A

median nerve

102
Q

where is carpal tunnel

A

a tunnel that is formed in the tendons of the carpal bones and muscles

103
Q

what are symptoms and treatments of carpal tunnel

A

fluid build up in the tunnel; lateral 3 1/2 fingers are paresthesia, hypoesthesia, anesthesia
treatment is night splints, massage, chiropractic, physical therapist, eccupuncture surgery is last option

104
Q

characteristics of reflexes

A

quick, involuntary, stereotyped reactions of glands or muscle to stimulation

105
Q

describe muscle spindle

A

stretch receptors embedded in skeletal muscles; they inform the brain of muscle length and body movement

106
Q

how is a reflex tested and what are examples

A

patellar tendon reflex; tap on patellar ligament excites the nerve endings of the muscle spindle and send signal to posterior root ganglion which synapses and flexes the knee and then the inhibitory post synaptic action potential to relax hamstring muscle so the quadriceps muscle can contract

107
Q

describe the withdrawal (flexion) reflex and how it relates to the crossed extension reflex

A

contraction of all flexors to withdraw limb from stimulus; relaxation of the extensors of the limb

108
Q

golgi tendon organ and its role in a tendon reflex

A

proprioceptors in a tendon near its junction with a muscle; tension receptors; this inhibits muscle from contracting strongly

Anatomy and Physiology I (8 decks)

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