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Sarah - Mulller and Kirk > Chapter 10 - Endocrine/metabolic > Flashcards

Chapter 10 - Endocrine/metabolic Flashcards

1
Q

Which is the major, metabolically active thyroid hormone?

A

T3

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2
Q

Name three things that inhibit TSH secretion

A 
Stress
Steroids
Dopamine
Thyroid hormones
Somatostatin
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3
Q

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone stimulates release of TSH and which other hormone?

A

Prolactin

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4
Q

Which keratinocyte genes are stimulated by T3?

A

Wound-healing

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5
Q

Myxoedema is due to increased deposition of what?

A

Mucin

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6
Q

Why do hypothyroid dogs have increased triglyceride levels?

A

Decreased plasma clearance

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7
Q

What % of euthyroid dogs can have a one-off low T4?

A

20%

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8
Q

What % of hypothyroid dogs have antithyroglobulin antibodies?

A

50%

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9
Q

Antithyroglobulin antibodies are more common in which dog breeds?

A

Great Danes, Borzois, Irish Setters, Old English sheepdogs and Dobermans

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10
Q

Can you see antithyroglobulin antibodies in euthyroid dogs with other endocrine diseases?

A

Yes

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11
Q

In which zone of the adrenal gland are glucocorticoids produced?

A

Zona fasciculata

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12
Q

Why do glucocorticoids cause thinning and fragility of the dermis?

A

They inhibit fibroblast proliferation, collagen and ground substance proliferation

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13
Q

What % of dogs have pituitary dependent hyperadrenocorticism?

A

80-85%

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14
Q

Which anatomical sites are most commonly affected by calcinosis cutis?

A

Dorsal neck, rump, axillae and groin

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15
Q

What % of cats have pituitary dependent hyperadrenocorticism?

A

~80%

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16
Q

Where is growth hormone (somatotropin) produced?

A

Adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary)

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17
Q

What regulates growth hormone secretion?

A

GHRH (growth hormone releasing hormone) and somatostatin (produced by hypothalamus)

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18
Q

What impairs insulin-like growth factor-1?

A

Steroids and oestrogens

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19
Q

Name the anatomical sites most obviously affected by myxoedema with acromegaly

A

Face and extremities

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20
Q

Do you get hyper- or hypotrichosis with increased growth hormone secretion?

A

Hypertrichosis

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21
Q

In GSDs, is pituitary dwarfism an autosomal recessive or dominant trait?

A

Autosomal recessive

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22
Q

Which hormones are deficient in GSDs with pituitary dwarfism?

A

Growth hormone, TSH, prolactin, gonadotropins

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23
Q

At what age to clinical signs become apparent in GSDs with pituitary dwarfism?

A

2-3 months

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24
Q

Which zone of the adrenal gland produces androgens and progesterone?

A

Zona reticularis

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25
Q

Which clinical sign is highly suggestive of hyperoestrogenism in male dogs?

A

Linear preputial erythema

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26
Q

In which breeds has Alopecia X been reported?

A 
Pomeranians
Alaskan Malamutes
Chows
Keeshonds
Min/toy poodles
Samoyeds
Schipperkes
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27
Q

What are the initial signs of Alopecia X?

A

Dull, dry coat and loss of primary hairs

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28
Q

Which anatomical sites are spared in Alopecia X?

A

Head and extremities

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29
Q

Name three cutaneous clinical signs that can be seen with diabetes mellitus in dogs and cats

A

Bacterial pyoderma
Seborrhoea
Thin and hypotonic skin
Alopecia

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30
Q

What are the differentials for necrolytic migratory erythema/SND?

A

PF
SLE
Zinc deficiency/responsive dermatosis
Generic dog food dermatosis

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31
Q

What make up the ‘red, white and blue’ layers on histopathology of necrolytic migratory erythema/SND

A 
Red = diffuse parakeratosis
White = vacuolaton of keratinocytes and oedema
Blue = basal cells hyperplasia superficial interstitial to lichenoid infiltrate
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32
Q

What are the histopathological findings of the skin of dogs with hyperadrenocorticism?

A
  • Thin epidermal and follicular epithelium, which can be 1-3 nucleated cell layers thick.
  • If calcinosis cutis is present, the epidermis is frequently hyperplastic and can be ulcerated.
  • Orthokeratotic hyperkeratosis; marked follicular keratosis, sometimes with comedone formation.
  • Thin dermis.
  • Hair follicles that are frequently in telogen or kenogen.
  • Sebaceous gland atrophy and/or sebaceous melanosis.
  • Dysplastic follicles
  • Variable hyperpigmentation.
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33
Q

Mineralization of the external root sheath can be seen in normal old dogs and dogs of which breed?

A

Poodles

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34
Q

Which treatments have reportedly been effective at reducing/resolving calcinosis cutis in dogs?

A

DMSO (Tolon et al. 2018)
Minocycline (Jang et al. 2013, Cho et al. 2017)
Tetracycline (Harvima et al. 2020)

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35
Q

Can the hepatopathy, hypoaminoacidemia, and aminoaciduria associated with hepatocutaneous syndrome be seen without NME/SND signs?

A

Yes - they may appear after diagnosis.

The presence or absence of skin lesions at time of diagnosis does not appear to affect survival (Loftus et al. 2022)

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36
Q

In the study by Loftus et al. (2022), which treatments for HCS were associated with increased survival?

A

At least two IV amino acid infusions
A home cooked, high protein diet

Supplements targeting depleted AAs essential for collagen synthesis (lysine, proline), supporting the urea cycle (arginine and ornithine), and for glutathione synthesis(cysteine, glycine, and SAMe) are recommended but were not found to significantly affect survival.

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37
Q

Plasma levels of which amino acids are low in dogs with HCS?

A

Alanine, glutamine, glycine, lysine, proline, threonine, 1-methylhistidine and cystathionine

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38
Q

What is the commonly reported signalment for HCS/SND?

A

Older, male, small breed dogs e.g. cocker spaniel, Shetland sheepdog, Shih Tzu, and West Highland white terrier

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39
Q

An excess of which amino acid in urine can help to diagnosis HCS?

A

Lysine and methionine

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40
Q

How does trilostaine treat HAC?

A

The drug is a competitive inhibitor of the 3β-hydroxysteroiddehydrogenase / isomerase system required to synthesise cortisol, aldosterone, and androstenedione.

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41
Q

Which breeds are more commonly affected by HAC?

A 
Miniature poodle, dachshund, Irish setter, bassett hound, miniature schnauzer and toy poodle (Hoffman et al. 2018)
Bichon frise (O'Neill et al. 2016)
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42
Q

Which breeds are least likely to develop HAC?

A

Dobermann pinscher, rottweiler, collie and great Dane
(Hoffman et al. 2018)
Border collie and Labrador (O’Neill et al. 2016)

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43
Q

In healthy individuals, corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), produced by the _________, is the principal simulant of episodic secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) by the pars ____ which stimulates glucocorticoid production and secretion from the adrenal glands

A

Hypothalamus

Distalis

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44
Q

True or false; In addition to the pars distalis, ACTH is also produced by the B cells of the pars intermedia where its secretion is regulated by tonic dopaminergic inhibition

A

True

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45
Q

Have bilateral adrenal tumours been reported in dogs with HAC?

A

Yes, uncommonly

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46
Q

Which hormone, other than cortisol, can be secreted by adrenal tumours?

A

17-OH-progesterone

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47
Q

What are the most common non-cutaneous clinical signs of HAC in dogs?

A
  1. PU/PD 82–91%
  2. PP 46–57%
  3. Abdominal enlargement 67–73%
  4. Hepatomegaly 50–67%
  5. Systemic hypertension 31–86%
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48
Q

What are the common biochemical changes in dogs with HAC?

A
  • Increased ALP 76–100% and ALT 80–95%
  • Hypercholesterolaemia 73–90%
  • Decreased urea concentration 34–56%
  • Hyperglycaemia 20–57%
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49
Q

What changes can be seen on urinalysis with HAC?

A
  • SG <1.015

- Proteinuria 62-80%

50
Q

Which two non-cutaneous diseases have been reported in association with HAC in dogs?

A

DM 10.5–13.6%

Gall bladder mucocele up to 23%

51
Q

When interpreting a LDDST, there are several patterns that can be seen at 3-4 and 8 hrs; how do you interpret them?

  1. Lack of suppression
  2. Escape
  3. Partial suppression
  4. Inverse
  5. Complete suppression
A
  1. Lack of suppression = HAC likely
  2. Escape = cannot interpret
  3. Partial suppression = HAC possible, look at other findings
  4. Inverse = cannot interpret
  5. Complete suppression = HAC unlikely
52
Q

The ACTH stimulation test assesses adrenocortical reserve. Serum cortisol concentrations are measured before and at ____ min after administration of a pharmacological dose of synthetic ACTH (also known as tetracosactide or cosyntropin)

A

60–90

53
Q

What dose of tetracosactide should be used for ACTH stim testing, 1 or 5 ug/kg?

A

5 ug/kg

54
Q

Which test should be used to diagnose iatrogenic HAC?

A

ACTH stim

55
Q

How do you interpret ACTH stim testing?

  1. Post stim cortisol WRI
  2. Post stim cortisol above RI
  3. Absent to weak stimulation
A
  1. Post stim cortisol WRI - possible HAC, consider other tests
  2. Post stim cortisol above RI - HAC likely
  3. Absent to weak stimulation - consider exogenous steroids or cortisol-precursors e.g. 17-OH-progesterone
56
Q

How can LDDST be used to assess if HAC is pituitary or adrenal dependent?

A

To confirm PDH:

  • Suppression >50% at 3- or 8-h post-dexamethasone administration
  • 3-h post-dexamethasone cortisol concentration below the laboratory cut-off
57
Q

Can HAC present with skin disease only?

A

Yes - typically non-pruritic, truncal alopecia and/or thin skin and pyoderma (can also present with limb/pedal pruritus!)

58
Q

Can histopathology be used to determine between iatrogenic and endogenous calcinosis cutis in dogs?

A

No

59
Q

What does this image show? Skin biopsy from a dog.

A

Calcinosis cutis - diffuse mineral deposition from superficial to mid dermis

60
Q

Seckerdieck and Mueller (2018); what % of dogs with recurrent pyoderma had hypoT4 and HAC?

A 
HypoT4 = 11% 
HAC = 6%
61
Q

What are the cutaneous signs of hypothyroidism in cats?

A
  1. Unkempt appearance
  2. Increased shedding
  3. Dandruff
  4. Hair thinning
62
Q

Replacement therapy after hypophysectomy consists of life-long administration of ________ and ________, and temporary administration of _________, a synthetic vasopressin analogue

A

Glucocorticoids and thyroxine

Desmopressin

63
Q

Radiotherapy can be used to treat which type of HAC?

A

Pituitary dependent

64
Q

Should trilostane be given once or twice daily?

A

Twice daily, it lasts <12 hours

65
Q

Trilostane treatment can take months to improve hair/skin signs with HAC; why canthey appear worse initially?

A

Due to shedding of telogen hairs and dry skin scales

66
Q

Mitotane causes adrenal necrosis; when might you use this drug over trilostane in dogs?

A

In cases of adrenocortical carcinomas where cell destruction is preferable (trilostane does not stop tumour growth)

67
Q

The melanocortin-2 receptor (MC2R) is the receptor for ____ and is expressed only in the adrenal cortex

A

ACTH

68
Q

In healthy euthyroid dogs, how long does 16 weeks of levothyroxine supplementation affect T4 and TSH levels?

A

Up to one week after cessation of treatment

69
Q

What are the clinical signs of feline HAC?

A
  1. PU/PD 81%
  2. Pot belly 61%
  3. PP 60%
  4. Skin atrophy 59%
  5. Muscle wasting 47%
  6. Weight loss 47%
  7. Lethargy 41%
  8. Alopecia 37%
  9. Skin fragility 32%
  10. Unkempt coat 30%
    Less commonly weakness/plantigrade stance, weight gain and hepatomegaly
70
Q

How often is DM seen with HAC in cats?

A

77%

71
Q

Why are increased ALP levels less commonly seen in HAC in cats compared to dogs?

A

Cats lack a glucocorticoid-induced isoenzyme of ALP; increases in ALP activity occur secondarily to diabetes mellitus or other concurrent diseases.

72
Q

Methimazole can cause what cutaneous signs in cats?

A
  1. Most common = severe pruritus and excoriations of the head and neck
  2. Non-pruritic alopecia with erythema, scales and perilesional yellowish crusts = pyogranulomatous mural folliculitis
73
Q

Cutaneous ADR has been reported in a dog on levothyroxine supplements, what was suspected to be the cause of the reactions?

A

The inactive ingredients magnesium stearate and/or polyvinylpyrrolidone as the dog reacted to two products containing these ingredients but not to a third levothyroxine supplement that did not

74
Q

What biochemical changes are seen in dogs with hypothyroidism?

A 
Hypercholesterolaemia - 75%
Hypertriglyceridaemia
Hyperlipidaemia
Increased aspartate aminotransferase (AST)
Increased alanine aminotransferase (ALT)
Increased alkaline phosphatase (ALP)
Increased creatine kinase (CK)
Increased fructosamine
75
Q

What haematological changes are seen in dogs with hypothyroidism?

A

Mild normochromic, normocytic, non-regenerative anaemia is the only consistent haematological abnormality, occurring in up to 50% of dogs with hypothyroidism

76
Q

What % of T4 is ubound (free T4)?

A

1%

77
Q

Can thyroglobulin autoantibodies falsely elevate free T4?

A

No - they can falsely elevate TT4

78
Q

How does size and breed of dog affect T4 levels?

A
  • Smaller dogs have higher baseline T4 levels than larger breed dogs.
  • Sight hounds have lower baseline T4 and FT4 levels
79
Q

Why are thyroglobulin autoantibodies present before clinical signs of hypothyroidism?

A

Clinical signs of hypothyroidism are seen only after 75% of the gland is destroyed

80
Q

Hypothyroidism is most common in which breeds of dog?

A

Dobermans, Schnauzers, Retrievers, Spaniels, Shetland Sheepdogs, Irish Setters, Dachshunds, Hovawart and Giant Schnauzer

81
Q

What % of hypothyroid dogs can have a normal TSH and low T4?

A

20-30%

82
Q

With short term use of 1mg/kg prednisolone in dogs, how are T4 levels affected?

A

T4 decreased on daily treatment but not on EOD treatment

83
Q

Where are thyroid hormone receptors and which thyroid hormone do they bind?

A

Nuclear thyroid hormone receptors (TRs) bind with 10- to 15-fold greater affinity to T3 than T4; they influence gene expression by binding to specific DNA elements as dimers = thyroid response elements (TREs)

84
Q

Which hormones are produced in the adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary)?

A 
TSH
ACTH
FSH
LH
GH
Prolactin
85
Q

Which hormones are produced by the hypothalamus?

A 
GHRH
CRH (corticotropin RH)
TRH
Gonadotropin RH
ADH
Oxytocin
Dopamine (inhibits prolactin)
86
Q

The chromophil cells of the adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary) produce which hormones?

A 
Acidophils = somatotropin (GH), prolactin
Basophils = FSH, LH, TSH
87
Q

The chromophobes of the adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary) produce which hormones?

A

MSH

POMC ( = Corticotopin and beta-lipotropin)

88
Q

True or false; the TSH receptor is a member of the large superfamily of G-protein-coupled seven-transmembrane receptors

A

True

89
Q

How is TSH release controlled?

A

Free, unbound T3 acts on the anterior pituitary to reduce the release of TSH secretion

90
Q

What effect do TSH, T3 and T4 have on the hair growth cycle?

A

They initiate and prolong anagen

91
Q

What effect do oestrogens have on the hair growth cycle?

A

They induce premature catagen and telogen and inhibit onset of anagen

92
Q

What are the primary mechanisms of action of thyroid hormones?

A
  1. Stimulation of cytoplasmic protein synthesis
    2 Increased tissue oxygen consumption

Thought to be initiated by binding of thyroid hormones to nuclear chromatin and augmentation of gene transcription

93
Q

Depletion of thyroid hormones results in impaired B and T cell function along with which other WBC?

A

Neutrophils

94
Q

Goitrous and nongoitrous congential hypothyroidism have been reported in which breeds of dog?

A

Bullmastif, GSD and Scottish deerhound

95
Q

Name causes of secondary hypothyroidism

A
  1. Failure of adenohypophysis to secrete TRH - congenital form in giant schnauzers
  2. Pituitary dwarfism
  3. Pituitary neoplasia
  4. GC administration or endogenous hypercortisolism
96
Q

How are sebaceous glands affected in hypothyroidism?

A

Sebaceous gland atrophy with reduced sebum excretion (thyroid hormones influence serum fatty acid concentrations and SG function)

97
Q

Which cutaneous sign is associated with iatrogenic HAC in cats (and not endogenous HAC)?

A

Medial curling of the pinnae

98
Q

In pituitary dwarfism, what lesion do most dogs have in the pituitary gland?

A

A variably sized cyst (Rathke cleft cyst) resulting in varying degrees of pituitary insufficiency

99
Q

Immunodeficient dwarfism has been reported in an inbred colony of which breed of dog?

A

Weimeraners (GH deficiency and congenital absence of the thymic cortex)

100
Q

What are the clinical signs of pituitary dwarfism?

A
  1. Fails to grow well after 2-3 months
  2. Shorter hair coat with no primary hairs (or restricted to face/extremities)
  3. Hair is soft and woolly and easily epilated (secondary hairs)
  4. Bilaterally symmetrical alopecia develops especially in areas of friction
  5. Followed by hyperpigmentation of exposed skin
  6. Skin becomes thin, hypotonic and scaly
101
Q

What is a characteristic metabolic abnormality of GH-deficient dogs?

A

IV injection of regular insulin causes severe, prolonged hypoglycaemia

102
Q

What can affect GH levels?

A 
Decreased GH:
- Hypothyroidism
- Hypercortisolism
Increased GH: 
- Pseudopregnancy
- Progestogen therapy
- Sex hormone imbalances
103
Q

Can baseline GH levels be used to diagnose GH deficiency?

A

No - need stimulation testing (e.g. GHRH, clonidine, xylazine)

104
Q

What are the non-cutaneous clinical signs of acromegaly?

A
  • Inspiratory stridor (ST hyperplasia)
  • Increased body size (notably paws and skull)
  • Abdominal enlargement
  • PU/PD/PP
  • Fatigue
  • Panting
  • Prognathism (projecting lower jaw or chin)
  • Widening of interdontal spaces
  • Galactorrhea
  • Cardiomegaly and failure
105
Q

What are the cutaneous clinical signs of acromegaly?

A
  • Thickened, myxoedematous skin with excessive folds
  • Hypertrichosis
  • Thick, hard claws
    Skin changes seen in dogs > cats
106
Q

What is the most common cause of acromegaly in dogs?

A

Progestational stimulation (intact females)

107
Q

Which organs/cells produce oestrogens?

A
  • Ovarian follicles
  • Zona reticularis of adrenal gland
  • Sertoli and interstitial cells of the testes
    Can also be made through peripheral aromatization of androgens
108
Q

What effect do oestrogens have on sebaceous glands?

A

Reduce size and sebum production

109
Q

What are the clinical signs of hyperoestrogenism?

A 
Females:
- Bilaterally symmetrical alopecia
- Enlargement of the vulva and nipples
- Oestrus cycle abnormalities
Males:
- Bilaterally symmetrical alopecia
- Enlarged nipples
- Decreased libido and spermatogenesis 
- Possible atrophy of non-neoplastic testicle 
- Enlarged prostate/prostatitis 
- Linear preputial erythema 
- Macular melanosis (rapid onset cf lentigines)
110
Q

What is the difference in dex dose for LDDST in cats cf dogs?

A 
Cats = 0.1 mg/kg
Dogs = 0.01 mg/kg
111
Q

How do you diagnose acromegaly?

A

Measure insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1)
Feline growth hormone
Advanced imaging of the brain
Organomegaly

112
Q

What happens to the hair coat in Schipperkes with alopecia X before hair loss?

A

Lightening of the coat

113
Q

What is secondary and what is tertiary acquired central hypothyroidism?

A

Secondary form arises from a defect in the pituitary and tertiary form arises from a defect in the hypothalamus

114
Q

What allele is more prevalent in hypothyroid dogs of predisposed breeds?

A

DLA-DQA1*00101

115
Q

Which medications influence the concentration of tT4?

A 
Prednisone/prednisolone
Phenobarbital
Potassium bromide
Potentiated sulphonamides
Propranolol
Clomipramine
Aspirin
Ketoprofen
Carprofen
Deracoxib
116
Q

Is fT4 influenced by medication as well as tT4?

A

Concentrations of free T4 are potentially lowered by certain drug therapies particularly including glucocorticoids, long-term anticonvulsants and trimethoprim-potentiated sulphonamides

117
Q

At what age is congenital hypothyroidism usually reported in cats? How do these cats look?

A 
Kittens 2-4 months
Disproportionate dwarfism (cretinism)
118
Q

Describe the physical examination findings and clinicopathological abnormalities in cats with acquired primary hypothyroidism.

A
  1. Palpable goiter, unkempt/dull haircoat, hair thinning/hypotrichosis, overweight/obesity, scales/dry skin
  2. Bradycardia (<150bpm)
  3. Azotemia, decreased urine specific gravity (<1.035), anaemia, hypercholesterolemia, increased CPK, increased SDMA
119
Q

What is the most sensitive and specific test to diagnose acquired (and iatrogenic) hypothyroidism in cats?

A
  • TSH
  • Serum TSH concentration is the most specific diagnostic test for hypothyroidism: low serum T4 and fT4 concentrations commonly develop in cats with nonthyroidal illness, but high values for TSH have not been reported in these sick, euthyroid cats
120
Q

What comorbidities are commonly associated with hyperthyroidism in cats?

A 
CKD
Thyrotoxic heart disease
Hypertension
Retinopathy
GI disease/malabsorption/cobalamin deficiency (B12)
Insulin resistance
121
Q

What are the treatment options for hyperthyroidism in cats?

A

Radioactive iodine
Methimazole or carbimazole
Surgical thyroidectomy
Iodine-restricted food

122
Q

Which dermatological changes can be seen with HAC in cats?

A
  • Non-pruritic alopecia affecting the ventrum and flanks
  • Thinning of skin
  • Bruising
  • Skin fragility (due to steroid-related suppression of fibroblast activity)
  • Recurrent cutaneous abscess formation
  • Change in hair colour (e.g. black to brown/red)

Sarah - Mulller and Kirk (14 decks)

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