Chapter 1 Introduction QUIZ 1 Flashcards
aetiology
all the factors that contribute to the development of an illness or disorder
agonist
a drug that stimulates receptors normally specific to a particular neurotransmitter
analytical psychology
the psychoanalytical system of psychology developed and practised by Carl Gustav Jung
amygdala
a subcortical structure of the temporal lobe involved in attention to emotionally salient stimuli and memory of emotionally relevant events
allele
any of the various forms of a particular gene
anal stage
in psychoanalytic theory, the second psychosexual stage, which occurs during the second year of life when the anus is considered the principal erogenous zone
archetype
a primitive mental image inherited from the earliest human ancestors and supposed to be present in the collective unconscious (from Jung’s psychoanalytic theory)
animal model
the use in research of animals to study a disease, psychological or psychopathological process that is similar to a human condition
antagonist
a drug that dampens the effect of a neurotransmitter on its receptors; for example, many dopamine antagonists block dopamine receptors
anxiety
an unpleasant feeling of fear and apprehension accompanied by increased physiological arousal; can be assessed by self-report, measuring physiological arousal and observing overt behaviour
anxiety disorders
disorders in which fear or anxiety is overriding; include phobic disorders, social anxiety disorder, panic disorder, generalised anxiety disorder and agoraphobia
attachment theory
the type or style of an infant’s attachment to his or her caregivers can set the stage for psychological health or problems later in development
asylums
refuges established in Western Europe in the fifteenth century to confine and provide for the mentally ill; forerunners of the mental hospital
attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
a disorder in children marked by difficulties in focusing adaptively on the task at hand, inappropriate fidgeting and antisocial behaviour, and excessive non-goal-directed behaviour
autonomic nervous system (ANS)
the division of the nervous system that regulates involuntary functions; innervates endocrine glands, smooth muscle and heart muscle; and initiates the physiological changes that are part of the expression of emotion.
behaviour therapy
a branch of psychotherapy conceived narrowly as the application of classical and operant conditioning to the alteration of clinical problems but more broadly as applied experimental psychology in a clinical context
behaviour genetics
the study of individual differences in behaviour that are attributable to differences in genetic make-up
behavioural medicine
an interdisciplinary field concerned with integrating knowledge from medicine and behavioural science to understand health and illness and to prevent as well as treat psychophysiological disorders and other illnesses in which a person’s psyche plays a role.
basal ganglia
part of the brain consisting of multiple subcortical nuclei situated at the base of the forebrain. Basal ganglia nuclei are strongly interconnected with the cerebral cortex, thalamus and brainstem, as well as several other brain areas. They are primarily responsible for motor control, as well as other roles such as motor learning, executive functions and behaviours and emotions.
behaviour therapy
a branch of psychotherapy conceived narrowly as the application of classical and operant conditioning to the alteration of clinical problems but more broadly as applied experimental psychology in a clinical context
behavioural activation (BA) therapy
clinical approach to depression that seeks to increase participation in positively reinforcing activities
biopsychosocial framework
a framework used to understand the importance of biological, psychological and social factors that impact on behaviour
benzodiazepines
any of several drugs commonly used to treat anxiety, such as Valium and Xanax
behaviourism
the school of psychology originally associated with John B Watson, who proposed that observable behaviour, not consciousness, is the proper subject matter of psychology. Contemporary behaviourists do use mediational concepts, provided they are firmly anchored to observables
brainstem
the part of the brain connecting the spinal cord with the cerebrum; contains the pons and medulla oblongata, and functions as a neural relay station
catharsis
the psychoanalytic process of reliving an earlier emotional trauma and releasing emotional tension by expressing previously forgotten thoughts about a traumatic event
caudate nucleus
a nucleus within the basal ganglia involved in learning and memory that is implicated in body dysmorphic disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder
cerebellum
an area of the hindbrain concerned with balance, posture and motor coordination
cerebral cortex the thin outer covering of each of the cerebral hemispheres; highly convoluted and composed of nerve cell bodies that constitute the grey matter of the brain
cerebrum
the two-lobed structure extending from the brainstem and constituting the anterior (frontal) part of the brain; the largest and most recently developed portion of the brain, responsible for coordinating sensory and motor activities and performing higher cognitive processes
chromosomes
the threadlike bodies within the nucleus of the cell, composed primarily of DNA and bearing the genetic information of the organism
classical conditioning
a basic form of learning, sometimes referred to as Pavlovian conditioning, in which a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with another stimulus (called the unconditioned stimulus, UCS) that naturally elicits a certain desired response (called the unconditioned response, UCR). After repeated trials, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) and evokes the same or a similar response, now called the conditioned response (CR).
cognition
the process of knowing; the thinking, judging, reasoning and planning activities of the human mind. Behaviour is now often explained as depending on these processes
cognitive–behavioural therapy (CBT)
behaviour therapy that incorporates theory and research on cognitive processes such as thoughts, perceptions, judgements, self-statements and tacit assumptions; a blend of both the cognitive and behavioural paradigms
cognitive–behavioural paradigm
general view that people can best be understood by studying how they perceive and structure their experiences and how this influences behaviour
cognitive biases
tendencies to perceive events in a negative manner, for example, by attending to or remembering negative information more than positive information; hypothesised to be driven by underlying negative schemas
cognitive restructuring
any behaviour therapy procedure that attempts to alter the manner in which a client thinks about life so that he or she changes overt behaviour and emotions
cognitive therapy
See cognitive restructuring. See also cognitive–behavioural therapy
collective unconscious
Jung’s concept that every human being carries within the wisdom, ideas and strivings of those who have come before
conditioned response (CR)
See classical conditioning
conditioned stimulus (CS)
See classical conditioning
congruence
humanistic idea that the therapist must maintain a genuineness and authenticity in their interactions with the client
copy number variation (CNV)
refers to variation in gene structure involving copy number changes in a defined chromosomal region; could be in the form of a deletion where a copy is deleted or an addition (duplication) where an extra copy is added
conscience
a person’s moral sense of right and wrong
corpus callosum
the large band of nerve fibres connecting the two cerebral hemispheres
cytokines
immune system molecules, released by activated macrophages, which help initiate such bodily responses to infection as fatigue, fever and activation of the HPA axis
cardiovascular disease
medical problems involving the heart and the blood circulation system, such as hypertension or coronary heart disease
defence mechanism
in psychoanalytic theory, reality-distorting strategies unconsciously adopted to protect the ego from anxiety
demonology
the doctrine that a person’s abnormal behaviour is caused by an autonomous evil spirit
depression
a mood state characterised by sadness and a lack of pleasure, particularly for events or situations in which one would usually experience pleasure
diagnosis
the determination that the set of symptoms or problems of a patient indicates a particular disorder
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
the manual of clinical syndromes published by the American Psychiatric Association and used for descriptive diagnosis. DSM-5 was published in 2013, with major changes to the classification system and diagnostic categories
dialectical behaviour therapy
a therapeutic approach to borderline personality disorder that combines client-centred empathy and acceptance with behavioural problem solving, social skills training and limit setting
diathesis
predisposition towards a disease or abnormality
diathesis–stress
as applied in psychopathology, a view that assumes that individuals predisposed towards a particular psychological disorder will be particularly affected by stress and will then manifest abnormal behaviour
dopamine
central nervous system neurotransmitter, a catecholamine that is also a precursor of norepinephrine and apparently figures in schizophrenia and Parkinson’s disease
DSM-5
the current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders of the American Psychiatric Association
effectiveness
how well a therapeutic treatment works in the real world in the hands of broader samples of non-academic, less supervised therapists. Compare efficacy
efficacy
how well a therapeutic treatment works under rarefied, academic research conditions. Compare effectiveness
ego
in psychoanalytic theory, the predominantly conscious part of the personality, responsible for decision making and for dealing with reality
emotion
the expression, experience and physiology that guide responses to problems and challenges in the environment
empathy
the ability to understand and share the feelings of another; in therapy, it refers to the notion that the therapist listens and tries to understand the world from the client’s perspective
enzyme
a complex protein that acts as a catalyst in regulating metabolic activities
epigenetics
the study of changes in gene expression that are caused by something other than changes in the DNA (gene) sequence or structure, such as DNA methylation
eugenics movement
a movement that aimed at improving the genetic composition of the human race through selective breeding and sterilisation
exorcism
the casting out of evil spirits by ritualistic chanting or torture
exposure
real-life (in vivo) or imaginal confrontation of a feared object or situation, especially as a component of systematic desensitisation. See also imaginal exposure
extinction
the elimination of a classically conditioned response by the omission of the unconditioned stimulus; in operant conditioning, the elimination of the conditioned response by the omission of reinforcement
extraversion
personality trait associated with frequent experiences of positive affect and social engagement
fixation
in psychoanalytic theory, the arrest of psychosexual development at a particular stage through too much or too little gratification at that stage
frontal lobe
the anterior portion of each cerebral hemisphere, in front of the central sulcus; active in reasoning and other higher mental processes
gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
inhibitory neurotransmitter that may be involved in the anxiety disorders
gene
the smallest portion of DNA within a chromosome that functions as a piece of functional hereditary information
gene expression
the switching on and off of the reading (transcription and translation) of genes into their products (usually proteins) and thus their associated phenotypes
gene–environment interaction
the influence of genetics on an individual’s sensitivity or reaction to an environmental event
genetic paradigm
the approach to human behaviour that focuses on both heritability of traits and complex interactions between genes and environment
grey matter
the neural tissue — made up largely of nerve cell bodies — that constitutes the cortex covering the cerebral hemisphere, the nuclei in lower brain areas, columns of the spinal cord and the ganglia of the autonomic nervous system. Compare white matter
genotype
an individual’s unobservable, genetic constitution, that is, the totality of genes present in the cells of an individual; often applied to the genes contributing to a single trait. Compare phenotype
genital stage
in psychoanalytic theory, the final psychosexual stage, reached in adulthood, in which heterosexual interests predominate
genome-wide association studies (GWAS)
studies of variations in the entire human genome to identify associations between variations in genes and particular behaviours, traits or disorders. Large sample sizes are needed for these types of studies
gyrus
a ridge or fold between two clefts on the cerebral surface in the brain
hypothalamus
in the subcortical region of the brain, the structure that regulates many visceral processes, including metabolism, temperature, perspiration, blood pressure, sleeping and appetite
hypnosis
a trancelike state or behaviour resembling sleep, induced by suggestion, characterised primarily by increased suggestibility
humanistic
referring to humanism, a psychological perspective that emphasises the study of the whole person and looks at human behaviour through the eyes of the observer and the individual person
HPA axis
the neuroendocrine connections among hypothalamus, pituitary gland and adrenal cortex, central to the body’s response to stress
habituation
the diminishing of an innate response to a frequently repeated stimulus
hippocampus
in the subcortical region of the brain, the long, tubelike structure that stretches from the septal area into the temporal lobe
heritability
the extent to which variability in a particular behaviour/disorder within a population can be attributed to genetic factors
health psychology
a branch of psychology dealing with the role of psychological factors in health and illness. See also behavioural medicine
harmful dysfunction
proposed definition of psychological disorder that contains both a value judgement (harmful) and a putatively objective scientific component (dysfunction)
hypothalamus
in the subcortical region of the brain, the structure that regulates many visceral processes, including metabolism, temperature, perspiration, blood pressure, sleeping and appetite
id
in psychoanalytic theory, that part of the personality present at birth, comprising all the energy of the psyche and expressed as biological urges that strive continually for gratification
psychopathology
the field concerned with the nature and development of psychological disorders
psychotherapy
a primarily verbal means of helping troubled individuals change their thoughts, feelings and
behaviour to reduce distress and to achieve greater life satisfaction.
psychoneuroimmunology
field that studies how psychological factors (especially stressors) impact the immune system (adversely)
rational-emotive behaviour therapy (REBT)
a cognitive–behavioural therapy developed by Albert Ellis
psychological disorder
a clinically significant behavioural or psychological syndrome or patterns. The definition includes a number of key features, including distress, disability or impaired functioning, violation of social norms and dysfunction
psychoanalysis
primarily the therapy procedures pioneered by Freud, entailing free association, dream analysis and working through the transference neurosis. More recently, the term has come to encompass the numerous variations on basic Freudian therapy
psychoanalytic theory
theory originating with Freud that psychopathology results from unconscious conflicts in the individual
psychoactive
refers to prescribed chemical compounds — for example, Prozac — having a psychological effect that alters mood or thought process
psyche
in psychoanalytic theory, the totality of the id, ego and superego, including both conscious and unconscious components
pruning
in neural development, the selective loss of synaptic connections, especially in the fine-tuning of brain regions devoted to sensory processing
prognosis
a prediction of the likely course and outcome of an illness. Compare diagnosis
prevalence
in epidemiological studies of a disorder, the percentage of a population that has the disorder at a given time
prefrontal cortex
the region of the frontal lobe of the brain that helps maintain an image of threats and rewards faced, as well as maintain focus and plan relevant to those threats and rewards
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
an extreme response to a severe stressor, including recurrent memories of the trauma, avoidance of associated stimuli, negative emotions and thoughts, and symptoms of increased arousal
positive reinforcement
the strengthening of a tendency to exhibit desired behaviour by rewarding responses in that situation with a desired reward
identity
the qualities, beliefs, personality and other characteristics that make a person (self-identity) or group (particular social category or social group) unique. The process of identity can be creative or destructive
in vivo as applied in psychology, taking place in a real-life situation
individual psychology
body of theories by Alfred Adler, who held that the main motives of human thought and behaviour are individual man’s striving for superiority and power
inhibitory learning
learning which inhibits previous learning
interpersonal therapy (IPT)
a short-term, here-and-now focused psychological treatment initially developed for depression and influenced by the psychodynamic emphasis on relationships
introversion
personality trait associated with frequent focus on one’s internal experiences; introverts are typically perceived as more reserved or reflective
latency period
in psychoanalytic theory, the years between ages 6 and 12, during which id impulses play a minor role in motivation.
law of effect
a principle of learning that holds that behaviour is acquired by virtue of its consequences
mood disorders
disorders, such as depressive disorders or mania, in which there are disabling disturbances in emotion
molecular genetics
studies that seek to determine the components of a trait that are heritable by identifying relevant genes and their functions
modelling
learning by observing and imitating the behaviour of others or teaching by demonstrating and providing opportunities for imitation
mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT)
recent adaptation of cognitive therapy/restructuring that focuses on relapse prevention after successful treatment for recurrent episodes of major depression; aims to ‘decentre’ the person’s perspective in order to break the cycle between sadness and thinking patterns
libido
Freudian term for the life-integrating instinct or force of the id; sometimes equated with sexual drive
limbic system
a complex system of nerves and networks in the brain that is concerned with instinct and mood and controls basic emotions (fear, pleasure, anger) and drives (hunger, sex, dominance, nurturance)
major depressive disorder (MDD)
a disorder of individuals who have experienced episodes of depression but not of mania. Depression episodes are marked by sadness or loss of pleasure, accompanied by symptoms such as feelings of worthlessness and guilt; withdrawal from others; loss of sleep, appetite or sexual desire; and either lethargy or agitation
mesmerise
the first term for hypnotise, after Franz Anton Mesmer, an Austrian physician, who in the late eighteenth century treated and cured hysterical or conversion disorders with what he considered the animal magnetism emanating from his body and permeating the universe
moral treatment
a therapeutic regimen, introduced by Philippe Pinel during the French Revolution, whereby mentally ill patients were released from their restraints and were treated with compassion and dignity rather than with contempt and denigration
negative reinforcement
the strengthening of a tendency to exhibit desired behaviour by rewarding responses in that situation with the removal of an aversive stimulus
polygenic
as applied to psychopathology or any other trait, caused by multiple genes contributing their effects, typically during multiple stages of development
polymorphism
any specific difference in DNA sequence that exists within a population
pleasure principle
in psychoanalytic theory, the demanding manner by which the id operates, seeking immediate gratification of its needs
phobia
an anxiety disorder in which there is intense fear and avoidance of specific objects and situations, recognised as irrational by the individual
phenotype
the totality of physical characteristics and behavioural traits of an individual or a particular trait exhibited by an individual; the product of interactions between genetics and the environment over the course of development. Compare genotype
person-centred therapy
an approach to therapy and counselling, based on the work of Rogers, that places much of the responsibility for the treatment process on the client, with the therapist taking a non-directive role
phallic stage
in psychoanalytic theory, the third psychosexual stage, extending from ages 3 to 5 or 6, during which maximal gratification is obtained from genital stimulation
neuron
a single nerve cell
neuroplasticity
the brain’s capacity to change and adapt in response to learning or experience or following injury, particularly referring to the physiological changes and the ability to form and reorganise synaptic connections
neuroscience paradigm
a broad theoretical view that holds that psychological disorders are caused in part by some aberrant process directed by the brain
neurotransmitters
chemical substances important in transferring a nerve impulse from one neuron to another, for example, serotonin and norepinephrine
non-shared environment factors
distinct among family members, such as relationships with friends or specific experiences unique to a person. Compare shared environment
norepinephrine
a catecholamine neurotransmitter, disturbances of which have been related to mania, depression and particularly to anxiety disorders. It is also a sympathetic nervous system neurotransmitter, a hormone released in addition to epinephrine and similar in action and a strong vasoconstrictor
object relations theory
variant of psychoanalytic theory that focuses on the way children internalise (introject) images of the people who are important to them (e.g., their parents), such that these internalised images (object representations) become part of the ego and influence how the person reacts to the world
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
an anxiety disorder in which the mind is flooded with persistent and uncontrollable thoughts or the individual is compelled to repeat certain acts again and again, causing significant distress and interference with everyday functioning
occipital lobe
the posterior portion of each cerebral hemisphere, situated behind the parietal lobe and above the temporal lobes; responsible for reception and analysis of visual information and for some visual memory
operant conditioning
the acquisition or elimination of a response as a function of the environmental contingencies of reinforcement and punishment. Compare classical conditioning
oral stage
in psychoanalytic theory, the first psychosexual stage, which extends into the second year; during this stage the mouth is the principal erogenous zone
paradigm
a set of basic assumptions that outlines the universe of scientific inquiry, specifying both the concepts regarded as legitimate and the methods to be used in collecting and interpreting data
parasympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that is involved with maintenance; controls many of the internal organs and is active primarily when the organism is not aroused. Compare sympathetic nervous system
sensations of the skin and of bodily positions
parietal lobe
the middle division of each cerebral hemisphere, situated behind the central sulcus and above the lateral sulcus; the receiving centre for sensations of the skin and of bodily positions
rational-emotive behaviour therapy (REBT)
a cognitive–behavioural therapy developed by Albert Ellis
reality principle
in psychoanalytic theory, the manner in which the ego delays gratification and otherwise deals with the environment in a planned, rational fashion
receptor
a protein embedded in a neural cell membrane that interacts with one or more neurotransmitters. Non-neural receptor proteins include hormone receptors
white matter
neural tissue, particularly of the brain and spinal cord, consisting of tracts or bundles of myelinated (sheathed) nerve fibres. Compare grey matter
unconscious conflict
a psychoanalytic notion that conflicts within the person that are not part of conscious experience affect our lives and functioning. Freud called this ‘psychic determinism’
unconscious
a state of unawareness without sensation or thought; in psychoanalytic theory, the part of the personality, in particular the id impulses or energy, of which the ego is unaware
unconditioned response (UCR)
See classical conditioning
unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
See classical conditioning
unconditional positive regard
the idea that, irrespective of the client’s thoughts or behaviours, the therapist maintains a stance of acceptance and understanding
ventricles
cavities deep within the brain, filled with cerebrospinal fluid, that connect to the spinal cord
transference
the venting of the analysand’s emotions, either positive or negative, by treating the psychoanalyst as the symbolic representative of someone important in the past
transcription
in genetics, the first step in gene expression. A section of DNA sequence is transcribed to RNA; a sequence of DNA synthesises a copy of RNA
time-out
an operant conditioning procedure in which, after bad behaviour, the person is temporarily removed from a setting where reinforcers can be obtained and placed in a less desirable setting, for example, in a boring room
theory
a formally stated and coherent set of propositions that explain and logically order a range of phenomena, generating testable predictions or hypotheses
thalamus
a major brain relay station consisting of two egg-shaped lobes; receives impulses from all sensory areas except the olfactory and transmits them to the cerebrum for higher processing
temporal lobe
a large region of each cerebral hemisphere situated below the lateral sulcus and in front of the occipital lobe; contains primary auditory and general association areas
systematic desensitisation
a major behaviour therapy procedure that has a fearful person, while deeply relaxed, imagine a series of progressively more fearsome situations, such that fear is dispelled as a response incompatible with relaxation; useful for treating psychological problems in which anxiety is the principal difficulty
synapse
small gap between two neurons where the nerve signal passes electrically or chemically from the axon of the first to the dendrites, cell body or axon of the second
risk factor
a condition or variable that increases the likelihood of developing a disorder
reuptake
cellular process by which released neurotransmitters are taken back into the presynaptic cell, terminating their present postsynaptic effect but making them available for subsequent modulation of nerve impulse transmission
schema
a mental structure for organising information about the world
schizophrenia
a disorder characterised by disturbances in thought, emotion, behaviour, cognition and mood; disordered thinking in which ideas are not logically related; delusional beliefs; faulty perception, such as hallucinations; disturbances in attention; disturbances in motor activity; blunted expression of emotion; reduced desire for interpersonal relations and withdrawal from people; diminished motivation and anticipatory pleasure; cognitive deficits in attention, concentration, memory, executive functioning and social cognition
self
how someone thinks about, evaluates or perceives themselves; what distinguishes a person from others
self-actualisation
the realisation or fulfilment of one’s potential, considered as a drive or need present in everyone
self-schemas
schemas relating to the self (see schema)
septal area
in the subcortical region of the brain, the area anterior to the thalamus
symptom
an observable physiological or psychological manifestation of a disease
sympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that acts on bodily systems — for example, contracting the blood vessels, reducing activity of the intestines and increasing the heartbeat — to prepare the organism for exertion, emotional stress or extreme cold. Compare parasympathetic nervous system
superego
in psychoanalytic theory, the part of the personality that acts as the conscience and reflects society’s moral standards as learned from parents and teachers
suicide
the intentional taking of one’s own life
sulcus
a groove or furrow on the surface of the brain
stress
state of an organism subjected to a stressor; can take the form of increased autonomic activity and in the long term can cause breakdown of an organ or development of a psychological disorder
stimulant
a drug, such as cocaine, that increases alertness and motor activity and at the same time reduces fatigue, allowing an individual to remain awake for an extended period of time
serotonin
a neurotransmitter of the central nervous system whose disturbances apparently figure in depression
serotonin transporter gene
a particular gene critical to the gene–environment interactions that apparently contribute to the development of depression
shared environment
factors that family members have in common, such as income level, child-rearing practices and parental marital status and quality. Compare non-shared environment
single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)
a variation in gene sequence; specifically, differences between people in a single nucleotide (A, T, G or C) in the DNA sequence of a particular gene
stigma
the pernicious beliefs and attitudes held by a society, ascribed to groups considered deviant in some manner, such as people with mental illness
anterior cingulate
in the subcortical region of the brain, the anterior portion of the cingulate gyrus, stretching about the corpus callosum
