Chapter 1 and 2 Flashcards
Psychology definition?
The Scientific study of behaviour of individuals and their mental processes (mind brain behaviour)
Belief Perseverance
Sticking to your belief even when evidence contradicts them. (stubborn on the “hot hand”)
Confirmation Bias
Tendency to seek out evidence that supports our belief and deny evidence that contradicts them
5 Main Challengers of Psychology (HPIPB)
1) Human behaviour is difficult to predict
2) Psychological influences are rarely independent
3) Individual differences among people
4) People influence one another
5) Behaviour is shaped by culture
Scientific Theory
An explanation for a large number of findings in the natural world.
5 Steps of the Scientific Method
1) State the problem (Specific question asked)
2) Develop a hypothesis (Prediction)
3) Design a study (manipulate variables IV and DV)
4) Collect/Analyze Data (summaries)
5) Draw conclusions/Report results (was hypothesis true?)
What is Behaviour?
Observable actions by which an organism adjusts to its environment. (also looks at role of unobservable)
Levels of Analysis
1) Social Culture Influences (Relationships, family)
2) Psychological Influences (thoughts, emotions)
3) Biological Influences (molecules, brain structure)
4 Goals of Psychology (DEPC)
1) Describing what happens
- Behavioural data, levels of analysis, objectivity
2) Explaining what happens
- Examining patterns, synthesis of info
3) Prediction what happens
- Stating likelihood that a certain behaviour will occur
4) Controlling what happens
- Prevention, intervention
Pseudoscience and its 6 signs
> Set of claims that sound scientific but isn’t
1) Exaggerated claims
2) Over-reliance on Anecdotes
3) No connection to other research
4) Lack of peer review
5) Meaningless psychobabble
6) Talk of “proof” over “evidence”.
3 Logical Fallacies in thinking
1) Emotional reasoning fallacy
2) Bandwagon fallacy
3) Not me fallacy
3 Main Dangers of Pseudoscience (ODI)
1) Opportunity Cost (not going to correct solution)
2) Direct Harm (Often physical or mental consequences)
3) Inability to think scientifically (crucial for other views)
6 Principles of Scientific Thinking (RCFREO)
1) Ruling out rival hypothesis
2) Correlation vs Causation
3) Falsifiability
4) Replicability
5) Extraordinary claims
6) Ocam’s Razor (simple over complicated)
Psychology’s Origin (4 people)
1) Socrates- Know thyself
2) Aristotle/Plato- Relationship of mind/body/soul
3) Descartes- Mind > body distinction
4) Locke/Hume- knowledge linked to experiences/sense
Gestalt Psychology
- How elements are organized into wholes
- Whole is > the sum of its parts.
- Max Wertheimer
Functionalism
- Focuses on HOW and WHY the mind functions
- purpose of consciousness > structure
- Broadened beyond observable
- Williams James (wrote principles pf psychology)
- John Dewey (brought to NA)
Structuralism
- “What” of mental behaviour
- Study of the conscious elements of the mind
- Used introspection (experiences thru senses)
- Wilhelm Wundt (developed first psych lab)
- Edward Eichener (brought structuralism to NA)
- James Baldwin (First Canadian lab)
Sigmund Freud Information
- Theories of the unconscious mind
- He believed unconscious mental process directed behaviour
- Used Psychoanalysis: the study of unconscious mind
- Believed that dreams in children were unconscious wishes.
- Believed everyone was sexual from birth (used seduction theory)
- Free association (talking without interruption)
- Transference (explaining thoughts/emotions to someone)
- Defence mechanisms (guide our unconscious)
Behaviourist Perspective
- Founded by John Watson/BF Skinner
- Focused on what is observable (environment determines behaviour)
Humanistic Perspective
- Carl Rogers/Abraham Maslow
- Hierarchy of needs (desire to fulfill ones potential)
Cognitive Perspecitve
-Focused on thinking, memory, perception
Biological Perspective
-Genes, Nervous system
Evolutionary Perspective
- Darwin
- Behaviours are passed onto the next generation
Sociocultural Perspective
-Culture/Society Influences
Empiricism
-View that knowledge must be acquired through careful observation rather than logic or intuition. (UFOs)
Theory Development (focuses on goals of psych)
- Ideas that describe, explain, and predict behaviour
- A+B=C
Heuristic and 2 most common types
Mental structures/rule of thumb(oversimplify reality)
1) Representative
- “Like goes with like”
- Fall into base rate fallacy, happening more than it does
2) Availability
- “Off the top of my head”
- how easy it comes to our mind
2 Cognitive Biases
1) Hindsight: Knew it all along
2) Overconfidence: Overestimating ability to be correct
Independent vs Dependent Variables
IV: The variable being manipulated
DV: What we are measuring (doesn’t change)
“the effect of _IV__ on the __DV__”
Descriptive Research Method
No manipulation of any variables
Describing and observing and taking in info that way
Descriptive Method #1 Case Study
Interviewing people to gain background info
Pro: Large amount of data collected
Con: Cannot infer causation
example is freud and Anna O who had random physical problems with no known cause. diagnosed with hysteria
Descriptive method #2 Naturalistic Observation
Observing events from a distance
Pro: High external validity
Con: Low internal validity
Descriptive Method #3 Survey/Self Report measure
Written questionnaires/phone interviews
Pro: Easy to administer
Con: dishonesty, malingering, response sets
Descriptive Method #4 Correlational Study
Determine strength between two variables
Pro: Predict behaviour
Con: Correlation doesn’t mean causation
Descriptive Method #5 Ex Post Facto Study
Comparing people with blue eyes, same gender, etc
Con: Cant infer causation
Experimental Method
Random assignment and Manipulating IV
- Confound variable= outside of the IV and DV
- Experimental group vs control group
- falls in line with scientific method
4 pitfalls of experimental method
1) Placebo effect
2) Nocebo effect
3) Experimenter Expectancy Effects: Double blindness
4) Demand Charecteristics: cues researcher gives
Illusory Correlation
Believing the existence of an association between 2 variables where there isn’t one
3 ethical obligations in research
1) Informed consent
2) avoid harm or discomfort
3) Debrief and reveal any deception used
2 Descriptive Stats
1) Central Tendency
2) Variability
2 Inferential Stats (SP)
Putting sample into population data
1) Statistical significance
- 0.05 level of confidence, what is the sample size?
2) Practical Significance
- Real world important
