CHAPTER 1

Question 1

are substances which neurons use to communicate with one another and with their target tissues in the process of synaptic transmission (neurotransmission).

Answer 1

NEUROTRANSMITTERS

Question 2

Excitatory neurotransmitters

Answer 2

Glutamate (Glu)
Acetylcholine (ACh)
Histamine
Dopamine (DA)
Norepinephrine (NE); also known as noradrenaline (NAd)
Epinephrine (Epi); also known as adrenaline (Ad)

Question 3

Inhibitory neurotransmitters

Answer 3

gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA)
Serotonin (5-HT)
Dopamine (DA)

Question 4

Neuromodulators

Answer 4

Dopamine (DA)
Serotonin (5-HT)
Acetylcholine (ACh)
Histamine
Norepinephrine (NE)

Question 5

Neurohormones

Answer 5

Releasing hormones from hypothalamus
Oxytocin (Oxt)
Vasopressin; also known as antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Question 6

function to activate receptors on the postsynaptic membrane and enhance the effects of the action potential,

Answer 6

Excitatory neurotransmitters

Question 7

function to prevent an action potential.

Answer 7

Inhibitory neurotransmitters

Question 8

is an excitatory neurotransmitter secreted by motor neurons, basal ganglia, preganglionic neurons of the autonomic nervous system, and postganglionic neurons of the parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems. It primarily stimulates muscle contraction but acts as an inhibitory neurotransmitter at parasympathetic vagus nerve endings to inhibit heart muscle through the cardiac plexus. It also plays a role in sensory neurons, the autonomic nervous system, and in regulating the dream state during deep sleep.

Answer 8

acetylcholine (ACh)

Question 9

is an excitatory neurotransmitter produced by the brainstem, hypothalamus, and adrenal glands, and it increases alertness and wakefulness. It is secreted by most postganglionic sympathetic nerves, stimulating bodily processes and contributing to the production of epinephrine. Abnormally low norepinephrine levels are linked to mood disorders like depression and anxiety, while high levels can impair the sleep cycle.

Answer 9

norepinephrine (NE)/noradrenaline (NAd),

Question 10

also known as adrenaline, is an excitatory neurotransmitter produced by the adrenal gland. It prepares the body for the fight-or-flight response by increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and glucose production from the liver. This response is triggered during high-stimulation situations like fear or anger.

Answer 10

epinephrine (Epi)/adrenaline (Ad),

Question 11

is a neurotransmitter secreted by neurons in the substantia nigra. It has both excitatory and inhibitory effects depending on the receptor type it binds to. It is crucial for movement coordination, inhibiting unnecessary movements, and regulating hormone release in the pituitary gland. Deficiency in this is linked to Parkinson’s disease, while excessive activity is associated with psychotic disorders like schizophrenia.

Answer 11

Dopamine (DA)

Question 12

s the most powerful inhibitory neurotransmitter produced in various brain regions. It functions as a brake to excitatory neurotransmitters, and low levels can lead to anxiety. It is essential for reducing neuronal excitability and maintaining mood and emotional stability.

Answer 12

GABA (gamma-Aminobutyric acid)

Question 13

is the most powerful excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, balancing the effects of GABA. It is involved in regulating general excitability, learning, and memory. Abnormality in this neurotransmission can contribute to epilepsy and cognitive and affective disorders.

Answer 13

glutamate (Glu)

Question 14

is an inhibitory neurotransmitter involved in regulating emotion, mood, temperature, pain perception, and sleep. It is secreted by brainstem neurons and those in the gastrointestinal tract. Low levels of this are associated with immune system dysfunction and emotional disorders like depression, OCD, and suicidal tendencies.

Answer 14

serotonin (5-HT)

Question 15

is an excitatory neurotransmitter produced by neurons in the hypothalamus, stomach mucosa, mast cells, and basophils. It plays a role in wakefulness, blood pressure, pain, and sexual behavior, and increases stomach acidity. It is involved in inflammatory responses and regulating the immune system, such as combating allergens

Answer 15

Histamine

Question 16

is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by learning and memory impairments associated with a lack of acetylcholine in certain brain regions.

Answer 16

Alzheimer’s disease

Question 17

Lack of this type of neurotransmitter can cause Alzheimer’s Disease

Answer 17

acetylcholine

Question 18

is believed to result from a depletion of norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine in the central nervous system.

Answer 18

Depression

Question 19

Depletion of these types of neurotransmitters can cause depression.

Answer 19

norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine

Question 20

involves excessive amounts of dopamine in the frontal lobes, leading to psychotic episodes. Medications that block dopamine are used to manage these conditions.

Answer 20

schizophrenia

Question 21

Excessive amount of this can lead to psychotic episodes schizophrenia

Answer 21

dopamine

Question 22

is caused by the destruction of the substantia nigra, leading to a loss of dopamine. This dopamine depletion results in uncontrollable muscle tremors.

Answer 22

Parkinson’s disease

Question 23

Loss of this type of neurotransmitter can lead to Parkinson’s disease

Answer 23

dopamine

Question 24

caused by a lack of inhibitory neurotransmitters like GABA or an excess of excitatory neurotransmitters like glutamate. Treatment depends on increasing GABA or decreasing glutamate to manage seizures.

Answer 24

Epilepsy

Question 25

lack of this inhibitory neurotransmitters can cause Epilepsy

Answer 25

GABA

Question 26

excess of this excitatory neurotransmitters can cause Epilepsy

Answer 26

glutamate

Question 27

associated with a chronic reduction of GABA in the brain, leading to movement and cognitive issues. Although it is inherited, symptoms can be managed by increasing inhibitory neurotransmitters.

Answer 27

Huntington’s disease

Question 28

A chronic reduction of this in the brain can lead to Huntington’s disease.

Answer 28

GABA

Question 29

is a chronic autoimmune disease that impairs acetylcholine transmission at neuromuscular junctions, causing muscle weakness and fatigue. It often results from antibodies blocking acetylcholine receptors, though it can also be caused by genetic defects affecting the neuromuscular junction

Answer 29

Myasthenia gravis

Question 30

Impairments to this transmission can cause Myasthenia gravis

Answer 30

Acetylcholine