Chap3/4 Flashcards
1
Q
coding genes:
A
which code for unique protein molecules,
2
Q
regulatory genes:
A
which work through various biological means to help activate or suppress specific coding genes and thereby influence the body’s development
3
Q
specific mechanisms through which experiences can activate genes and thereby alter the individual’s brain and behavior. This type of behavior change is known as _ of _
A
environmental induction
gene activity
4
Q
_ activate _, which produce _, which in turn alter the ___ and thereby change the _.
A
Experiences
genes
proteins
function of some of the neural circuits in the brain
individual’s behavior
5
Q
genotype refers to :
A
the set of genes that the individual inherits
6
Q
phenotype refers to:
A
the observable properties of the body and behavioral traits
7
Q
Two individuals with the same genotype can be quite different in phenotype as a result of _.
A
differences in their environments
8
Q
What is the advantage of producing genetically diverse offspring?
A
By producing diverse offspring, parents reduce the risk that all of their offspring will die as a result of some unforeseen change in the environment.
9
Q
identical twins:
A
They are formed when two bundles of cells separate from each other during the early mitotic divisions following the formation of a zygote. Because they originate from one zygote, identical twins are also known as monozygotic twins
10
Q
Fraternal twins
A
, or dizygotic twins, originate from two zygotes, each formed from different egg and sperm cells.
11
Q
Mendel’s discovery of __ led to the gene concept and to the concepts of dominance and recessiveness.
A
consistent ratios of traits in offspring of cross- pollinated strains of peas
12
Q
Some genetic conditions, such as _, carry both risks and benefits for the individuals born with them.
A
sickle-cell anemia (malaria)
13
Q
polygenic characteristics
A
Characteristics that vary in a continuous way are generally affected by many genes
14
Q
In animals the role of genes in polygenic traits is studied through the procedure of _
A
selective breeding.
15
Q
selective breeding involves
A
the mating of individuals that lie toward the same extreme on the measure in question.
16
Q
The first long-term, systematic study of selective breeding in psychology was begun in the 1920s by _(1942)
A
Robert Tryon
“maze bright” and “maze dull” rats
17
Q
research with nonhuman animals suggests that the way the human brain “learns” to react to stress through the production and processing of the hormone cortisol is likely governed by _
A
epigenetic mechanisms
18
Q
Single-gene traits (controlled by one pair of genes) are _ (all or none) in nature.
A
categorical
19
Q
Polygenic traits (influenced by many gene pairs) are _ (present in varying degrees) and often fit a _.
A
continuous
normal distribution
20
Q
The best understood mechanism for epigenetic effects is that of DNA _
A
methylation
21
Q
Darwin’s Insight:
A
Selective Breeding Occurs in Nature
22
Q
book of Darwin (1859/1963) that is the foundation of modern biology
A
The Origin of Species
23
Q
artificial selection to refer to
A
human-controlled selective breeding
24
Q
Selective breeding in nature, which Darwin labeled _, is dictated not by the needs and whims of humans but by the _.
Those obstacles include _, _, _, _ —anything that can _ or otherwise prevent an organism from _.
A
natural selection
obstacles to survival and reproduction that are imposed by the natural environment
predators
limited food supplies
temperature extremes
difficulty in finding and attracting mates for sexual reproduction
cut life short
producing offspring
25
Core concepts of Darwin’s theory of natural selection:
There is overproduction of offspring in each generation.
There is variation in features or traits within members of a generation.
Individual differences are inherited from one generation to the next.
Individuals with collections of traits that fit well with the local environment are more apt to survive and have more offspring than individuals whose traits do not fit as well with the local environment.
26
The genetic variability on which natural selection acts has two main sources:
(1) the reshuffling of genes that occurs in sexual reproduction (already discussed) and
(2) mutations
27
some argued that early giraffes, by frequently stretching their necks to reach leaves in trees, slightly elongated their necks in the course of their lives and that this change was passed on to their offspring—resulting, over many generations, in the long-necked giraffes we see today. That idea, referred to as the _, is most often attributed to _ (1744–1829)
inheritance of acquired characteristics
Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck
28
The biologist August Weismann established that what happens to the body cells during the life of an animal does not affect that animal’s gametes (egg and sperm), a principle known as _
the doctrine of the separation of the germ (sex cells) and somatic (body cells) lines.
29
However, animals inherit more than just their genes. They inherit _ and some _, as well as a _
chemicals within the egg
cellular machinery
species-typical environment
30
naturalistic fallacy:
Nature is neither good nor bad, moral nor immoral
31
functionalism:
the attempt to explain behavior in terms of what it accomplishes for the behaving individual.
32
Distal explanations (as in “distant”) are
explanations at the evolutionary level. They are statements of the role that the behavior has played in the animal’s survival and reproduction over evolutionary time. Viewed from the vantage point of the gene, they are statements of how the behavior helped the individual’s ancestor’s genes make it into the next generation. Distal causation is sometimes referred to as ultimate causation.
33
Proximate explanations (as in “proximity”) are
explanations that deal not with function but with mechanism; they are statements of the immediate conditions, both inside and outside the animal, that elicit the behavior.
34
The distal explanation states the _ value of the behavior, and the proximate explanation states the _ through which the behavior occurs.
survival or reproductive
stimuli and physiological mechanisms
35
Some traits that evolved because they served the needs of our ancestors are no longer functional today, yet they remain. These remnants of our past are called _.
vestigial characteristics
eg with monkeys and the grasp reflex among newborns
36
Such variation, due to chance alone without selection, is called _
genetic drift.
37
Functionalism is
an approach to psychology that focuses on the usefulness of a particular behavior to the individual engaging in it.
38
Limitations of Functionalism:
Some traits are vestigial; they once served a function but no longer do.
Some traits, such as the umbilical cord, are adaptations; whereas others, such as the navel, are side effects, or by-products, of other traits that arose through natural selection.
Some traits are products just of chance, not natural selection.
Evolved Mechanisms Cannot Deal Effectively With Every Situation: evolved mechanisms, such as that for guilt, are not useful in every situation in which they are active.
39
Every species of animal has certain characteristic ways of behaving. These are commonly called _, but a more technical term for them is _.
instincts
species-typical behaviors
40
Infants are born with a “stepping reflex,” which shows that they have, inborn, the neural mechanisms for two-legged walking. how could we call this process? same with talking(anatomical structures that can produce a wide range of sounds)
Biological preparedness
41
A homology is
any similarity that exists because of the different
species’ common ancestry.
42
An analogy,
in contrast (of homology), is any similarity that stems not from common ancestry but from convergent evolution.
43
_ are useful for research on the physiological mechanisms of behavior
Homologies
44
Why do "homologies" are important in studying evolution?
They help scientists figure out how animals and their behaviors have changed over time.
45
How do scientists use homologies to trace the history of animal behaviors?
Scientists compare similar behaviors in related species to understand how complex behaviors might have evolved from simpler ones step by step.
46
Analogies, in contrast, are not useful for tracing evolutionary origins, but are useful for _.
understanding the distal functions, or the underlying reasons and benefits, of species-typical behaviors even when those species don't share a direct evolutionary path.
47
polygyny [pah-li-ji- nee], in which
one male mates with more than one female
48
polyandry [pah-lee-an-dree], in which
one female mates with more than one male
49
promiscuity, in which
members of a group consisting of more than one male and more than one female mate with one another
50
Robert Trivers (1972) outlined _ theory
parental investment
51
Parental investment can be defined roughly as
the time, energy, and risk to survival that are involved in producing, feeding, and otherwise caring for each offspring.
52
Trivers proposed that in sexually reproducing species there is a conflict between
mating effort (time/effort expended in finding and keeping a mate) and parenting effort (time/effort expended in raising offspring).
53
Polygyny Is Related to _ Female and _ Male Parental Investment
High
Low
54
Polyandry Is Related to _ Male and _ Female Parental Investment
High
Low
55
Monogamy Is Related to _
Equivalent Male and Female Parental Investment
56
Promiscuity Is Related to _
Investment in the Group
57
A special form of polyandry occurs in some South American hunter- gatherer groups, who believe that a child possesses some of the characteristics of any man the mother has sex with approximately 10 months before birth, termed _.
partible paternity
58
helping can be defined as
any behavior that increases the survival chance or reproductive capacity of another individual.
59
(helping) Cooperation occurs when
an individual helps another while helping itself
60
(helping) Altruism, in contrast (of cooperation), occurs when
an individual helps another while decreasing its own survival chance or reproductive capacity.
61
The _ theory holds that behavior that seems to be altruistic came about through natural selection because it preferentially helps close relatives, who are genetically most similar to the helper (Hamilton, 1964).
kin selection
62
The _ (theory) provides an account of how acts of apparent altruism can arise even among nonkin.
reciprocity theory
63
The brain makes up about _% of our body weight, but consumes about _% of our metabolic energy
2
20
64
CNS:
brain and spinal cord
65
PNS (peripheral) :
extensions from CNS
66
Sensory neurons:
bundled together to form nerves, carry information from sensory organs (including the eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin) into the central nervous system.
67
Motorneurons,
also bundled into nerves, carry messages out from the central nervous system to operate muscles and glands.
68
Interneurons
exist entirely within the central nervous system and carry messages from one set of neurons to another. Interneurons collect, organize, and integrate messages from various sources. They vastly outnumber the other two types.
69
Most axons form many branches some distance away from the cell body, and each branch ends with a small swelling called an _
axon terminal
70
supportive brain cells
glial cells
71
A given neuron might fire off action potentials at a rate anywhere from less than _ per second to as many as _ per second.
1
1,000
72
The membrane is a
porous “skin” that permits certain chemicals to flow into and out of the cell, while blocking others.
73
This charge across the membrane of an inactive neuron is called its _.
resting potential
74
Serotonin
Influences many behaviors, including sleep and mood and is implicated in depression.
75
GABA
An inhibitory neurotransmitter, which weakens or slows down signals; plays an important role in anxiety.
76
The process of creating new neurons is referred to as _ and it occurs during the first _ weeks after conception, peaking in the _ months of gestation
neurogenesis
20
third and fourth
77
At its peak during prenatal development, up to 250,000 synapses are being formed per minute. Yet, 40 to 50% of these synapses will be lost, or pruned. Furthermore, it’s not just synapses that are lost; neurons themselves also die in a process, known as _, or apoptosis
selective cell death
apoptosis
78
Neuroscientists have discovered that the brains of human beings and of at least some nonhuman primates contain organized systems of neurons that seem to be well designed to foster social learning. These are referred to as _ because they are believed to help us behave in ways that mirror (mimic) what we observe or experience. They are found in various parts of the _ of monkeys and humans.
mirror neurons
cerebral cortex
79
Recording of the electrical activity of the cortex using multiple scalp electrodes.
Electroencephalography (EEG)
80
An encephalographic measure of local changes in the brain electrical activity in response to specific stimuli.
Event-Related Potentials (ERPs)
81
Detects the magnetic field changes produced by the cortical electrical activity.
Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
82
The localization of a brain function by temporarily blocking the electrical activity of an area by exposure to a magnetic field.
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
83
The localization of brain function by temporarily stimulating electrical activity directing weak electrical currents to specific areas of the brain.
Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS)
84
High-resolution image of brain anatomy measuring energy changes of brain tissue after an exposure to a strong magnetic field.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
85
Measures the diffusion of water in the brain tissue, permitting the imaging of the white matter tracts.
Diffusion Tension Imaging (DTI)
86
Assesses the metabolic activity of glucose or oxygen in the brain by following the path of a radioactive tracer injected intravenously.
Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
87
Assesses indirectly the metabolic activity of the brain through measuring the changes in the blood flow.
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
88
Methods Used for Studying the Human Brain:
(1) studying the effects of brain damage
(2) observing behavioral effects of artificially stimulating specific parts of the brain
(3) recording changes in neural activity that occur in specific parts of the brain when a person or animal is engaged in a particular mental or behavioral task
89
Stimulation of specific areas of an animal’s brain can also be accomplished either _ or _.
electrically
chemically
90
It is helpful to keep in mind that the nervous system is hierarchically organized. Indeed, it contains two distinct but interacting hierarchies:
the sensory-perceptual hierarchy (bottom (sensory receptors) to top (perceptual centers in the brain))
the motor- control hierarchy (top to bottom)
91
the sensory-perceptual hierarchy, is involved in
data processing. It receives sensory data about a person’s internal and external environment, and it analyzes those data to make decisions about the person’s bodily needs and about threats and opportunities in the outside world.
92
the motor-control hierarchy, is involved in
control of movement. The flow of information here is primarily from top (executive centers that make decisions about the activities that the person as a whole should engage in) to bottom (translate those decisions into specific patterns of muscle movement.).
93
Humans have _ pairs of cranial nerves and _ pairs of spinal nerves.
12
31
94
The sensations conveyed by these inputs, which include touch and pain, are referred to collectively as _.
somatosensation
95
Motor neurons act on two broad classes of structures. One class consists of the _, the muscles that are attached to bones and produce externally observable movements of the body when contracted. The other class consists of the _.
skeletal muscles
visceral muscles and glands
96
Neurons that act on skeletal muscles make up the _(body) portion of the peripheral motor system. Those that act on visceral muscles and glands make up the _ portion.
somatic
autonomic
97
Whereas skeletal motor neurons initiate activity in the skeletal muscles, autonomic motor neurons typically _ rather than initiate activity in the visceral muscles.
modulate (modify)
98
Most visceral muscles and glands receive two sets of neurons, which produce opposite effects and come from two anatomically distinct divisions of the autonomic system:
sympathetic and parasympathetic
99
The spinal cord contains _, which carry somatosensory information brought in by the spinal nerves up to the brain, and _, which carry motor control commands down from the brain to be transmitted out by spinal nerves to muscles.
ascending tracts
descending tracts
100
The networks called _ activate motor neurons in the spinal cord in such a way as to produce the rhythmic sequence of muscle movements that results in walking, running, flying (in birds), or swimming (in fish).
pattern generators
101
In some animals (but not in humans), the pattern generators become active when released from the _, which accounts for the wing flapping and running motions of the headless chicken.
brain’s inhibitory control over them
102
As it enters the head, the spinal cord enlarges and becomes the _.
brainstem
103
The parts of the brainstem, beginning closest to the spinal cord and going upward toward the top of the head, are the
medulla, pons, and midbrain
104
the brainstem is the site of entry of most _
(10 of the 12 pairs) of the cranial nerves.
105
The medulla and pons organize reflexes that are more complex and sustained than spinal reflexes. They include _, which help an animal maintain balance while standing or moving, and certain so- called _, such as those that regulate breathing rate and heart rate in response to input signaling the body’s metabolic needs.
postural reflexes
vital reflexes
106
brainstem animal
An animal (such as a cat) whose central nervous system is cut completely through just above the brainstem
107
Damage to either the cerebellum or the basal ganglia can greatly interfere with a person’s ability to _
produce learned, skilled, well-coordinated movements.
108
Damage to the cerebellum is especially associated with loss in ability to
behave in ways that require rapid, well-timed sequences of muscle movements, such as pitching a baseball, leaping over a hurdle, playing a musical instrument, or typing a series of words at a computer (Bagnall et al., 2013).
109
damage to the basal ganglia is especially associated with loss of
ability to coordinate slower, deliberate movements, such as reaching out to pick up an object (Mink, 2013).
110
The basal ganglia appear to use sensory information primarily in a _ manner.
feedback
111
The cerebellum, in contrast, uses sensory information primarily in a _ manner (Ohyama et al., 2003).
feed- forward
112
Arousal pathways in the midbrain converge in the center of the _ and then project diffusely to _.
thalamus
all areas of the cerebral cortex
113
hippocampus: (function)
crucial for keeping track of spatial location (the direction-sensitive place cells, noted earlier in the chapter, are located there) and for encoding certain kinds of memories.
114
Hypothalamus' primary task is to help regulate the internal environment of the body. This it accomplishes by (a) _, (b) _, and (c) _. In addition, through its connections with the limbic system, the hypothalamus helps to regulate _.
influencing the activity of the autonomic nervous system
controlling the release of certain hormones
affecting certain drive states, such as hunger and thirst
emotional states, such as fear and anger
115
The hypothalamus plays a major role in the regulation of basic drives important to survival, including the so-called “four Fs”:
fighting, fleeing, feeding, and fornicating.
116
Researchers who study the functions of the cortex divide it into three categories of functional regions, or areas:
primary sensory areas:
receive signals from sensory nerves and tracts by way of relay nuclei in the thalamus (visual area in the occipital lobe, the auditory area in the temporal lobe, and the somatosensory area in the parietal lobe)
primary motor area:
sends axons down to motor neurons in the brainstem and spinal cord (occupies the rear portion of the frontal lobe)
association areas:
receive input from the sensory areas and lower parts of the brain and are involved in the complex processes that we call perception, thought, and decision-making (all the remaining parts of the cortex).
117
The primary sensory and motor areas of the cortex are organized in such a way that adjacent neurons receive signals from or send signals to adjacent portions of the sensory or muscular tissue to which they are ultimately connected. This fact is referred to as the principle of _.
topographic organization
118
Directly in front of the primary motor area lies a set of other cortical areas devoted to motor control, referred to collectively as:
premotor areas
119
The portion of the cerebral cortex that has expanded the most in human beings compared to other animals is the _
prefrontal cortex
120
the prefrontal cortex is involved in
executive function
planning and behaving flexibly, particularly when dealing with novel information
121
motivation and planning of movements:
limbic system (motivation)
Association cortex( planning)
122
generation of programs for movement
basal ganglia and cerebellum
premotor areas of cortex
123
refinement of programs for individual movement components
motor nuclei of the upper brainstem
primary motor area of the cortex
124
maintenance of posture and smooth execution of movements
motor nuclei of lower brainstem and spinal cord
125
many other hormones are secreted by organs that are not usually classified as endocrine glands, such as the _.
stomach, intestines, kidneys, and brain
126
rear part of the pituitary:
the posterior lobe
127
The posterior lobe consists mainly of modified neurons, referred to as
neurosecretory cells
128
The two hemispheres are connected by a massive bundle of axons called the
corpus callosum
129
The most obvious distinction between the two cortical hemispheres in humans is that large areas in the left are specialized for _ and comparable areas in the right are specialized for _
language and interpretation
nonverbal, visuospatial analysis of information (face recognition, reading maps, and drawing geometric shapes)
130
each hemisphere apparently learns to communicate indirectly with the other by observing and responding to the behavior that the other produces, a process that Gazzaniga (1967) labeled _.
give eg
cross-cueing
For example, the right hemisphere may perceive something unpleasant and precipitate a frown, and the left may feel the frown and say, “I’m displeased.”
131
Any loss of language ability resulting from brain damage is called
aphasia
132
Broca’s area, (location and main function)
just anterior to the primary motor area, left frontal lobe
fluent speech production
133
dammage to broca's area:
Broca’s aphasia: type of aphasia in which speech becomes labored and telegraphic, meaning that the minimum number of words are used to convey the message.
difficulty understanding language
134
Wernicke’s area (location)
certain area of the left temporal lobe, near the primary auditory area
135
damage to Wernicke’s area
Wernicke’s aphasia:
difficulty understanding the meanings of words they heard and also had difficulty finding the appropriate words to express the meanings they wanted to convey.
Use of a lot of pronouns.
speech retains its fluency and grammatical structure but loses its meaning.
136
hippocampus, a structure known to be involved in _
learning and memory.
137
The synapse between neuron A and neuron C is initially weak, so A is ineffective in stimulating C. However, if C fires (because of the firing of neuron B) immediately after neurotransmitter molecules have been released from A onto C, the synapse between A and C will grow stronger. If this happens a sufficient number of times, the synapse may become sufficiently strong that A will be able to trigger action in C even when B is inactive. This type of synapse is called
Hebbian synapse
138
_ is produced by artificially stimulating, with a burst of electrical pulses, a bundle of neurons entering a particular region of an animal’s brain. This results in the strengthening of the synapses that those neurons form with postsynaptic neurons so that subsequent weak stimulation of the same bundle elicits a stronger response in the postsynaptic neurons than it would have before.
LTP: Long-Term Potentiation
139
Harry Jerison (1973, 2002) developed a formula for evaluating the expected ratio between brain weight and body weight for animals called the _
encephalization (en-sěf ́-ə-lə-zā ́-shən) quotient, or EQ.
