chap 5 Flashcards by Emilie Pellet

motivation is often used to refer to

the entire constellation of factors, some inside the organism and some outside, that cause an individual to behave in a particular way at a particular time.

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A more precise label for the “motivation” topic is _

motivational state, or drive.

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Drives in psychology are considered hypothetical constructs because they

can’t be directly observed.

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The motivational state that leads you to stand in line at the cafeteria is presumably _, but the incentive for doing so is the _

hunger

sandwich you intend to purchase.

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regulatory drive is one, like _, that _

hunger

helps preserve homeostasis

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nonregulatory drive is one, like _, that _

sex

serves some other purpose.

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five categories of mammalian drives

Regulatorydrives

Safetydrives

Reproductivedrives

Socialdrives

Educativedrives

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Regulatory drives.

these risks promote survival by helping to maintain the body’s homeostasis. Hunger and thirst are prime examples.

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Safety drives.

risks that motivate an organism to avoid, escape, or fend off dangers such as precipices, predators, or enemies.

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The most obvious safety drive is _, which motivates individuals to _. Another is _, which is manifested when _ (or threatening to fight) rather than flight is needed to ensure one’s safety. _ is also a safety drive.

fear

flee from danger

anger

fighting

sleep

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Reproductive drives.The most obvious of these are the _ and the drive to care for the _.

sexual drive

young once they are born

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Social drives. Many mammals, and especially humans, require the cooperation of _ to survive. The social drives include the drives for _ and for _ of which one is a part. In humans, these drives can be as powerful as the regulatory, safety, and reproductive drives. People will risk their lives for friendship and for social approval.

others

friendship

acceptance and approval by the social groups

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Educative drives. These consist primarily of _.

exploration (curiosity)

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central-state theory of drives:

different drives correspond to neural activity in different sets of neurons in the brain.

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A set of neurons in which activity constitutes a drive is called a _

central drive system.

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Researchers have sound reasons to believe that the _ is the hub of many central drive systems

hypothalamus

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As noted in the previous section, motivated behavior involves the _

pursuit of rewards

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A reward is something that _, something that _, and something that _

we like

we want

serves as a reinforcer in learning

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Liking refers to _

the subjective feeling of pleasure, or satisfaction, that occurs when one receives a reward.

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Wanting refers to the _

desire to obtain a reward.

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_ is the component of reward that links most clearly to the concept of motivation

wanting

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Subsequent research showed that rats and other animals will work hardest and longest to stimulate a tract in the brain called the _

The neurons of this tract that are most crucial for this rewarding effect have their cell bodies in _ in the _ and synaptic terminals in a _ in the _ called the _

medial forebrain bundle.

nuclei

midbrain

large nucleus

basal ganglia

nucleus accumbens

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The nucleus accumbens itself has connections to large areas of the _ and the _, and it is now understood to be a crucial center for the behavioral effects of _, in humans as well as in other mammals.

limbic system

cerebral cortex

rewards

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_ is responsible for wanting

_ is responsible for likink

dopamine

endorphin

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One line of evidence for this is the observation that dopamine release promotes _ of neural connections within the _

long- term potentiation (LTP) nucleus accumbens

Addictive drugs cause _each time they are taken, which may cause _ of cues and actions associated with obtaining the drug; hence, addiction.

dopamine release into the nucleus accumbens super-learning

Sets of neurons in the brain’s _ raise or lower the animal’s drive to eat, and these neurons are themselves regulated by the _ of food materials.

hypothalamus body’s deficit or surfeit

The neurons that constitute the food-o-stat exist in several closely interconnected portions of the _, but are most concentrated in the _

hypothalamus arcuate nucleus

arcuate nucleus lies in the _

center of the lowest portion of the hypothalamus, very close to the pituitary gland

arcuate nucleus has been described as the “_” for appetite and _ regulation

master control center weight

the arcuate nucleus contains two classes of neurons that have opposite effects on appetite:

the appetite-stimulating neurons the appetite-suppressing neurons

the appetite-stimulating neurons

connect to various parts of the brain and promote all the effects that are associated with increased hunger, including craving for food, increased attention to food-related cues, increased exploration in search of food, and heightened enjoyment of the taste of food.

the appetite-suppressing neurons:

have effects on various parts of the brain that are opposite to those of the appetite-stimulating neurons.

Both of these classes of arcuate neurons exert their effects on other brain areas through the release of _, which have the capacity to _

slow-acting neurotransmitters alter neural activity for long periods of time

One appetite-suppressing hormone that has received considerable attention is _(abbreviated _), which is produced by _

peptide YY3-36 PYY special endocrine cells in the large intestine.

In humans, blood levels of the PYY hormone begin to increase _ minutes after a meal is eaten, peak at about _ minutes, and remain elevated for as long as _ hour(s) after a large meal

15 60 6

Research with rodents shows that one of the target tissues of PYY is the _, where the hormone excites _ neurons and inhibits _ neurons (Marx, 2003).

arcuate nucleus appetite-suppressing appetite- stimulating

Fat cells in mice, humans, and other mammals secrete a hormone called _ at a rate directly proportional to the amount of fat that is in the cells

leptin

Leptin is taken up into the brain and acts on neurons in the _ and other parts of the _ to reduce appetite.

arcuate nucleus hypothalamus

Other research suggests that many obese people feel chronically hungry not because they lack leptin but because their _

brains are relatively insensitive to the hormone

People and laboratory animals that eat a type of food until they are satiated experience renewed appetite when a different food, with a different taste, is placed before them (Havermans et al., 2009). This phenomenon is referred to as _, and many experiments show that it is mediated primarily by the sense of _

sensory-specific satiety taste

scarcity

penury

A measure called the _, is generally used to assess a person’s weight.

body mass index, or BMI

As obesity rises, so does the rate of diseases that are secondary to it, including _

Type 2 diabetes, coronary heart disease, stroke, and certain types of cancers

the striatum, a

subcortical area involved in inhibitory responses.

Another factor involved in obesity is _.

prenatal nutrition

babies with bad prenatal nutrition develop “_,” storing _ than children whose prenatal diets were more nutritious.

thrifty phenotypes more fat

when prenatal nutrition is poor, brain circuitry develops differently, causing individuals to hold on to as many calories as they can in anticipation of limited food resources (see Gluckman & Hansen, 2005). Peter Gluckman and Mark Hanson (2005) refer to fetuses responding to current conditions (in this case poor nutrition) not for immediate advantage but in anticipation of later advantage after birth as _

predictive adaptive responses.

Decreased food intake not only activates the _ mechanisms in the brain but can also produce a _ (the rate at which _).

hunger decline in basal metabolism calories are burned while the individual is at rest

The arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus is a _

feedback-based appetite control center

Leptin, a hormone produced by _ helps to regulate _ by acting on the _ to _.

fat cells body weight hypothalamus reduce appetite

When a person is relaxed but awake, with eyes closed and not thinking of anything in particular, the EEG typically consists of large, regular waves called _, which occur at a frequency of about _ cycles per second

alpha waves 8 to 13

alpha waves stem from a synchronized pulsing of neurons in the _ and _ that occurs in the _ or _.

thalamus cerebral cortex absence of focused mental activity emotional excitement

When a person concentrates on an external stimulus, or tries to solve a problem, or becomes excited, the EEG pattern changes to low-amplitude, fast, irregular waves called _

beta waves

As sleep deepens, an increased percentage of the EEG is devoted to slow, irregular, high-amplitude waves called _.

delta waves

insomniac vs nonsomniac

1. needs an average 6-8 hours of sleep but can't and feel tired 2. don't need this sleep and feel rested even if their night was short

A repetitive biological change that continues at close to a 24-hour cycle in the absence of external cues is called a _

circadian rhythm

The clock that controls the circadian rhythm of sleep in all mammals is located in a specific nucleus of the _ called the _. The latter contains rhythm-generating neurons that gradually _ over a cycle of approximately 24 hours

hypothalamus suprachiasmatic nucleus increase and decrease their rate of action potentials

In addition to controlling sleepiness, the suprachiasmatic nucleus also controls a daily rhythm of _

body temperature and of certain hormones.

_ is the hormone most directly linked to the circadian clock, and is often used by researchers as an index of the clock’s timing. Produced by the _

Melatonin pineal gland

Brain researchers have found that changes in lighting influence the rhythm-generating neurons by way of a neural tract that runs from the _ to the _.

retinas of the eyes suprachiasmatic nucleus

The preservation and protection theory asserts that sleep is needed to _. It is supported by _ comparisons of _ and _ of sleep.

conserve energy and increase safety cross-species amount timing

The body-restoration theory contends that the body needs sleep to _. It is supported by _.

recover from wear and tear sleep deprivation studies in animals

REM sleep may function to _ and _.

maintain brain circuits consolidate new learning

An emotion is a _

subjective feeling that is mentally directed toward some object.

pride, shame, guilt, shyness, jealousy, envy, empathy, and embarrassment. These latter emotions are called _, which seem to depend on _

self-conscious emotions an individual’s self-awareness

The feeling associated with emotion, independent of the object, is referred to by some psychologists as _

affect

dimensions of affect:

- degree of pleasantness or unpleasantness of the feeling, -and the other has to do with the degree of mental and physical arousal.

Emotional feelings are not always attached to objects. Sometimes an emotional feeling is experienced as free-floating rather than directed at a particular object; if it lasts for a sufficiently long period, it is referred to as a _.

mood

One useful classification system was developed by _, who identified eight primary emotions.

Robert Plutchik (2003)

They can be arranged as four pairs of opposites: joy versus _, anger versus _, acceptance versus _, and surprise versus _

sorrow fear disgust expectancy

Emotions must have come about through natural selection because of their adaptive value. In fact, the first scientific theory and systematic study of emotions came from _, who in 1872 published _.

Charles Darwin The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals

The belief that basic emotions are innate and associated with distinctive bodily and facial reactions is referred to as _ (Izard, 1991; Tomkins, 1962) and is an extension of Darwin’s functionalist view.

discrete emotion theory

Over 100 years ago, in his classic textbook The Principles of Psychology, William James (1890/1950) turned common sense upside down and suggested that _, rather than the reverse (which is the common sense theory: “My heart pounds and I tremble because I am afraid”).

bodily reactions precede the emotions and cause them

James’s evidence for his theory of emotion came not from experiments but from _.

introspection

Schachter's theory of emotion, also known as the _, posits that emotional experience arises from a combination of two components: _ and _. According to this theory, individuals seek to understand their physiological arousal by attributing it to a _ based on their _.

two-factor theory of emotion physiological arousal cognitive interpretation of that arousal specific emotional cause context and cognitions

Ekman’s theory (pen in mouth while watching a movie):

a person’s facial response influences the person’s feeling of an emotion and also influences the person’s bodily responses to the emotional situation

Research on the brain’s emotional systems has focused particularly on two structures: the _ and the _.

amygdala prefrontal portion of the cerebral cortex

The amygdala receives sensory input by way of two routes: a _ and a somewhat _

very rapid subcortical route (analyzes incoming information even before sensory areas of the cerebral cortex have processed that information) slower cortical route (analyzes, in more detail, information that has been processed by the cerebral cortex)

In a set of classic experiments with monkeys, removal of the amygdala along with nearby portions of the temporal lobe of the cerebral cortex on both sides of the brain produced a dramatic set of changes in behavior described as _

psychic blindness

Moreover, in brain imaging studies with people with intact brains, increased neural activity in the amygdala correlates strongly with increases in _

fear, anger, or disgust

_ is essential for the full conscious experience of emotions and the ability to act in deliberate, planned ways based on those feelings.

prefrontal cortex

Much research using EEG or fMRI has shown greater neural activity in the right prefrontal cortex when experiencing _ emotions (especially _) and greater activity in the left prefrontal cortex when experiencing _ emotions

negative fear and disgust positive

The right prefrontal cortex seems to be most involved in responses that entail _, or _. That is why the right prefrontal cortex is most responsive in the emotions of _. The left prefrontal cortex seems to be most involved in responses that involve _, or _, which is why it is most responsive in _ emotions.

withdrawal moving away from the emotional stimulus fear and disgust approach moving toward the emotional stimulus happy

anger is generally associated with greater activation of the _ prefrontal cortex than the _

left right

Schachter proposed that _ affects emotional intensity, but _ determine the type of emotion.

peripheral feedback perceptions and thoughts