chap 8

Question 1

Classical conditioning

Answer 1

is a form of learning in which organisms learn to predict events based on relationships between events.

Question 2

is a form of learning in which organisms learn to predict events based on relationships between events.

Answer 2

Classical conditioning

Question 3

One simple effect of experience on reflexes is _, defined as a decline in the magnitude of a reflexive response when the stimulus is repeated several times in succession.

Answer 3

habituation

Question 4

_ is one of the simplest forms of learning.

Answer 4

Habituation

Question 5

_’s initial discovery of what we now call classical conditioning emerged from his earlier studies of digestive reflexes in dogs.

Answer 5

Pavlov

Question 6

signals that regularly preceded food, such as the sight of the food or the sound associated with its delivery, alerted the dogs to the upcoming stimulation and caused them to salivate. At first Pavlov was content to treat this simply as a source of experimental error. He called it “__” implying that it was outside the physiologist’s realm of study, and he attempted to eliminate it by developing ways to introduce the food into the dog’s mouth without any warning.

Answer 6

psychic secretion,

Question 7

Pavlov called the stimulus (the bell sound, in this case) a _, and he called the response to that stimulus (salivation) a _

Answer 7

conditioned stimulus

conditioned response.

Question 8

the original stimulus (food placed in the mouth) and response (salivation) are referred to as an _ and _, respectively.

Answer 8

unconditioned stimulus
unconditioned response

Question 9

when stopped to give food after bell-Pavlov’s group found that without food, the bell elicited less and less salivation on each trial and eventually none at all, a phenomenon they labeled _.

Answer 9

extinction

Question 10

they also found that extinction does not return the animal fully to the unconditioned state. The mere passage of time following extinction can partially renew the conditioned response, a phenomenon now known as _

Answer 10

spontaneous recovery

Question 11

after conditioning, animals would show the conditioned response not just to the original conditioned stimulus but also to new stimuli that resembled that stimulus. This phenomenon is called _.

Answer 11

generalization

Question 12

Generalization between two stimuli can be abolished if the response to one is reinforced while the response to the other is extinguished, a procedure called _.

Answer 12

discrimination training

Question 13

Behaviorists believed that psychology should focus on _. and it’s called:

Answer 13

the relationship between observable events in the environment (stimuli) and observable behavioral reactions to those events (responses).

Behaviorism.

Question 14

The principal founder of behaviorism:

Answer 14

John B. Watson (1913)

Question 15

In one of his early books, Watson (1924) attempted to describe even complex examples of human learning in terms of what we now call _.

Answer 15

classical conditioning

Question 16

We now return to the question raised earlier: What, really, is learned in classical conditioning? Watson’s (1924) and other early behaviorists’ answer to that question was simply that a _. And it’s called the _ (!= theory of Pavlov)

Answer 16

new stimulus–response connection is learned.

stimulus-response (S-R) theory of classical conditioning.

Question 17

S-R theory, conditioning produces a _

Answer 17

direct bond between the conditioned stimulus and the response.

Question 18

According to the S-S (Stimulus-Stimulus) theory, conditioning produces a _

Answer 18

bond between the conditioned stimulus and a mental representation of the unconditioned stimulus, which, in turn, produces the response.

Question 19

Support for the S-S theory comes from experiments showing that _

Answer 19

that weakening the unconditioned response (through habituation), after conditioning, also weakens the conditioned response.

Question 20

The S-S theory of _ did not appeal to _ and his followers because it posited the existence of _, the mental representation of the original unconditioned stimulus.

Answer 20

Pavlov

Watson

an unobserved event in the animal’s mind

Question 21

Cognitive theorists have argued that this mental representation of the unconditioned stimulus may be best understood as an _

Answer 21

expectation of the unconditioned stimulus.

Question 22

Expectancy theory helps make sense of the observation that _

Answer 22

a conditioned response is often quite different from the unconditioned response.

Question 23

what are 3 classes that help to have a good conditioned stimulus?

Answer 23

1. The conditioned stimulus must precede the unconditioned stimulus.
2. The conditioned stimulus must signal heightened probability of occurrence of the unconditioned stimulus.
3. Conditioning is ineffective when the animal already has a good predictor. (blocking effect)

Question 24

_ effect: he taste of a small morsel of food, the smell of food, a dinner bell, a clock indicating that it is dinnertime, or any other signal that reliably precedes a meal can rather quickly cause us to feel much hungrier than we were feeling just before the signal.

Answer 24

the appetizer

Question 24

_ refers to changes in the strength of liking or disliking of a stimulus as a result of being paired with another positive or negative stimulus.

Answer 24

Evaluative conditioning

Question 25

_: they operate on the world to produce some effect. They are also called _ because they function like instruments, or tools, to bring about some change in the environment.

Answer 25

operant responses instrumental responses

Question 26

The process by which people or other animals learn to make operant responses is called _, or _

Answer 26

operant conditioning instrumental conditioning.

Question 27

Operant conditioning can be defined as a _ by which the _

Answer 27

learning process; effect, or consequence, of a response influences the future rate of production of that response.

Question 28

Partly on the basis of his puzzle-box experiments, _ (1898) formulated the _, which can be stated briefly as follows: Responses that produce a satisfying effect in a particular situation become more likely to occur again in that situation, and responses that produce a discomforting effect become less likely to occur again in that situation

Answer 28

Thorndike; law of effect

Question 29

_ coined the terms _ to refer to any behavioral act that has some effect on the environment and _ to refer to the process by which the effect of an operant response changes the likelihood of the response’s recurrence.

Answer 29

Skinner; operant response ; operant conditioning;

Question 30

Skinner (1938) proposed the term _, as a replacement for such words as satisfaction and reward, to refer to a _.

Answer 30

reinforcer; stimulus change that follows a response and increases the subsequent frequency of that response.

Question 31

Other stimuli have reinforcing value only because of previous learning, and Skinner called these _. An example of a conditioned reinforcer for humans is _.

Answer 31

conditioned reinforcers; money

Question 32

Skinner argued that _—which refers to a mental phenomenon—is not a useful construct for explaining behavior.

Answer 32

awareness

Question 33

_: in which successively closer approximations to the desired response are reinforced until the desired response finally occurs and can be reinforced.

Answer 33

shaping

Question 34

The absence of reinforcement of the response and the consequent decline in response rate are both referred to as _.

Answer 34

extinction

Question 35

In the real world as well as in laboratory experiments, a particular response may only produce a reinforcer some of the time. This is referred to as _, to distinguish it on the one hand from _, where the response is always reinforced

Answer 35

partial reinforcement continuous reinforcement

Question 36

Skinner and other operant researchers have described the following four basic types of partial-reinforcement schedules:

Answer 36

1) a fixed-ratio schedule a reinforcer occurs after every nth response, where n is some whole number greater than 1. 2). A variable-ratio schedule is like a fixed-ratio schedule except that the number of responses required before reinforcement varies unpredictably around some average. 3) a fixed-interval schedule a fixed period of time must elapse between one reinforced response and the next. 4) A variable-interval schedule is like a fixed-interval schedule except that the period that must elapse before a response will be reinforced varies unpredictably around some average.

Question 37

Ratio schedules (whether fixed or variable) produce reinforcers at a rate that is directly proportional to the rate of responding, so, not surprisingly, such schedules typically induce _ responding.

Answer 37

rapid

Question 38

In Skinner’s terminology, reinforcement refers to _

Answer 38

any process that increases the likelihood that a particular response will occur.

Question 39

_ occurs when the arrival of some stimulus following a response makes the response more likely to recur.

Answer 39

Positive reinforcement

Question 40

Negative reinforcement, in contrast, occurs when _

Answer 40

the removal of some stimulus following a response makes the response more likely to recur.

Question 41

In Skinner’s terminology, punishment is _.

Answer 41

the opposite of reinforcement. It is the process through which the consequence of a response decreases the likelihood that the response will recur.

Question 42

_ the arrival of a stimulus, such as electric shock for a rat or scolding for a person, decreases the likelihood that the response will occur again.

Answer 42

positive punishment

Question 43

In _, the removal of a stimulus, such as taking food away from a hungry rat or money away from a person, decreases the likelihood that the response will occur again.

Answer 43

negative punishment

Question 44

_ is analogous to discriminant training in classical conditioning

Answer 44

operant conditioning

Question 45

After considerable training of this sort, the rat will begin pressing the lever as soon as the tone comes on and stop as soon as it goes off. The tone in this example is called a _.

Answer 45

discriminative stimulus

Question 46

_: when the reward presumably provides an unneeded extra justification for engaging in the behavior. give eg.

Answer 46

overjustification effect ppl get rewarded for drawing: before they saw it as a hobby, now: as work

Question 47

_ uses principles of operant conditioning to predict behavior

Answer 47

behavior analysis

Question 48

Skinner defined reinforcer as a _

Answer 48

stimulus change that follows an operant response and increases the frequency of that response.

Question 49

Reinforcement _ response rate; punishment _ response rate.

Answer 49

increases decreases

Question 50

_ involve delivering a series of tokens, or artificial reinforcers, for performing target behaviors. They are often used with people with intellectual impairment.

Answer 50

Token economies

Question 51

The first theorist to write about play from an evolutionary perspective was the German philosopher and naturalist _

Answer 51

Karl Groos

Question 52

Groos argued that the primary purpose of play is to _

Answer 52

provide a means for young animals to practice their instincts —their species-typical behaviors.

Question 53

_, which is also called fantasy, pretend or make-believe play, includes an “as if” orientation to objects, actions, and other people and increases during early childhood as a result of children’s growing abilities to use symbols to represent something as other than itself

Answer 53

Symbolic play

Question 54

Once the rat is thoroughly familiar with the arena, it will reduce its movement but will continue periodically to tour the arena as if looking to see if anything has changed—a behavior referred to as _.

Answer 54

patrolling

Question 55

Tolman used the term _ to refer to learning that is not immediately demonstrated in the animal’s behavior. give eg.

Answer 55

latent learning. In the experiment just described, the rats in group 3 learned the spatial layout of the maze in the first 10 trials, but that learning remained latent, not manifested in their behavior, until the addition of a reward gave the rats a reason to run straight to the goal box.

Question 56

_ is broadly defined as occurring in a situation “in which one individual comes to behave similarly to another”. This is usually done simply by watching others and is referred to by psychologists as _.

Answer 56

Social learning observational learning

Question 57

Key cognitive capabilities in Bandura’s social-cognitive theory: 1) _: The ability to think about social behavior in words and images. 2) _: The ability to anticipate the consequences of our actions and the actions of others. 3) _: The ability to adopt standards of acceptable behavior for ourselves. 4) _: The ability to analyze our thoughts and actions. 5) _: The ability to learn new behavior and the consequences of one’s actions by observing others.

Answer 57

1) Symbolization 2) Forethought 3) Self- regulation 4) Self-selection 5) Vicarious reinforcement

Question 58

_ are those acquired through the normal processes of operant conditioning and usually take repeated trials to acquire.

Answer 58

Unprepared behaviors

Question 59

_, in contrast, are those that are impossible or difficult to learn despite extensive training, such as the association between nausea and patterns of light and sounds in rats.

Answer 59

Contraprepared behaviors

Question 60

Lorenz labeled the phenomenon _, a term that emphasizes the very sudden and apparently irreversible nature of the learning process involved. It’s as if the learning is immediately and indelibly stamped in.

Answer 60

imprinting

Question 61

One interesting feature of imprinting is the rather restricted _ during which it can occur. Spalding (1873/1954) found that if chicks were prevented from seeing any moving object during the first 5 days after hatching and he then walked past them, they did not follow.

Answer 61

critical period

Question 62

Lorenz also noted that an animal’s early experiences could influence subsequent sexual preferences; that is, which species an animal is sexually attracted to, or the characteristics of a same-species individual that an animal will find most attractive. This phenomenon is known as _.

Answer 62

sexual imprinting

Question 63

early cohabitation results in a so-called __, such that the incidence of reproductive sexual behavior (that is, intercourse) is reduced, but nonreproductive sexual behaviors (such as fondling and exhibitionism) are not necessarily reduced.

Answer 63

incest inhibition effect

Question 64

__: that people in all cultures who are raised together from early in childhood rarely ever marry, whether they are siblings, cousins, or unrelated adoptive or foster siblings.

Answer 64

Westermarck effect