chap 9

Question 1

The information-process model portrays the mind as containing three types of __—_, _ (or _) memory, and _

Answer 1

memory stores;
sensory memory;
short-term;
working;
long-term memory.

Question 2

In addition to the stores, the model specifies a set of control processes, including _, _, _, and _, which govern the processing of information within stores and the movement of information from one store to another.

Answer 2

attention
rehearsal
encoding
retrieval

Question 3

some trace of sensory input stays in your information-processing system for a brief period—less than 1 second for sights and up to several seconds for sounds —even when you are not paying attention to the input. This trace and the ability to hold it are called _.

Answer 3

sensory memory.

Question 4

The function of the sensory memory:

Answer 4

to hold on to sensory information, in its original sensory form, long enough for it to be analyzed by unconscious mental processes and for a decision to be made about whether or not to bring that information into the short-term store.

Question 5

information can enter the short- term store from both the sensory-memory store and the long-term-memory store. In this sense, the short-term store is analogous to the _.

Answer 5

central processing unit of a computer

Question 6

We are not conscious of the items of information in our long-term store except when _

Answer 6

they have been activated and moved into the short-term store.

Question 7

_, in this context, is the process that controls the flow of information from the sensory store into the short-term store. Because the capacity of sensory memory is large and that of the short-term store is small, _ must restrict the flow of information from the first into the second.

Answer 7

Attention

Question 8

_ is the process that controls movement from the short-term store into the long-term store.

Answer 8

Encoding

Question 9

_ is the process that controls the flow of information from the long-term store into the short-term store.

Answer 9

Retrieval

Question 10

At one extreme are _, which require the use of mental resources for their successful completion; at the other extreme are _, which require little or none of the short-term store’s limited capacity.

Answer 10

effortful processes

automatic processes

Question 11

_ typically place one way of thinking on the _ end of the information- processing continuum, with processing being _, _, and _. The second way of thinking is placed on the _ side of this continuum, with processing being _, _, and _.

Answer 11

dual-processing theories;
automatic
fast
automatic
unconscious

effortful
slow
effortful
conscious

Question 12

In many cases, when presented with a problem, you cannot shut off the “fast” system, even if it may interfere with your arriving at the correct solution to a problem via the “slow” system. This is illustrated in the _, named after _ (1935), the first to describe it.

Answer 12

Stroop interference effect
J. Ridley Stroop

Question 13

all information that is picked up by the senses enters briefly into sensory memory and is analyzed to determine its relevance to the ongoing task and its potential significance for the person’s survival or well-being. That analysis occurs at an unconscious level and is called _.

Answer 13

preattentive processing

Question 14

Selective Listening
The pioneering research on attention, beginning in the 1940s and 1950s, centered on the so-called _, the ability to pick up important information (e.g., someone saying your name) while focusing on other information (e.g., a conversation with someone at a noisy cocktail party).

Answer 14

cocktail-party phenomenon

Question 15

what depicts the experiences of the gorilla or the shapes colour overlap?

Answer 15

inattentional blindness

Question 16

Auditory sensory memory is also called _, and the brief memory trace for a specific sound is called the _.

Answer 16

echoic memory

echo

Question 17

Visual sensory memory is also called _, and the brief memory trace for a specific visual stimulus is called the _.

Answer 17

iconic memory
icon

Question 18

sensory input can alter behavior, and even conscious thought, without itself becoming conscious. One means by which it can do this is called _.

Answer 18

priming

Question 19

Priming is the _

Answer 19

activation, by sensory input, of information that is already stored in long-term memory.

Question 20

Apparently, the unconscious, preattentive analysis of stimuli for meaning involves many of the same brain mechanisms _.

Answer 20

that we use to analyze consciously perceived stimuli

Question 21

Neural mechanisms in the _ are responsible for the control of attention.

Answer 21

anterior (forward) portions of the cortex

Question 22

Many studies have shown that areas in the _ and in _ become active when shifts in attention occur

Answer 22

frontal lobe.
anterior portions of the temporal and parietal lobes.

Question 23

Other studies have shown that the _) is especially active during tasks, such as the Stroop task, that require intense concentration on relevant stimuli and screening out of irrelevant stimuli

Answer 23

prefrontal cortex (the most anterior portion of the frontal lobe

Question 24

Lesions in the _, the _, and the _ in one hemisphere can result in _, with individuals being unable to “see” things in the contralateral visual field

Answer 24

parietal lobe
frontal lobe
anterior cingulate cortex
spatial neglect

Question 25

The components in Baddeley’s model include a _, responsible for holding verbal information; a _, responsible for holding visual and spatial information; and a _, responsible for coordinating the mind’s activities and for bringing new information into working memory from the sensory and long-term stores.

Answer 25

phonological loop visuospatial sketchpad central executive

Question 26

_:the number of digits that a person can keep in mind for a brief period and report back accurately.

Answer 26

digit span

Question 27

More generally, the number of pronounceable items—such as digits, other words, or nonsense syllables—that a person can keep in mind and report back accurately after a brief delay is called the _

Answer 27

short-term memory span

Question 28

The phonological loop is _

Answer 28

the part of working memory that holds on to verbal information by subvocally repeating it.

Question 29

Working-memory span is typically _ than short-term memory span and is a good predictor of performance on higher-level cognitive tasks.

Answer 29

two items less

Question 30

Cognitive psychologists today see working memory not as an isolated process but as part of _—relatively basic and general- purpose information-processing mechanisms that, together, are important in planning, regulating behavior, and performing complex cognitive tasks.

Answer 30

executive functions

Question 31

executive functions consist of three related components: (a) _, or _, monitoring, and rapidly adding/deleting the contents of working memory; (b) _, shifting flexibly between different tasks or mind-sets; and (c) _, preventing a cognitive or behavioral response, or keeping unwanted information out of mind.

Answer 31

working memory updating switching inhibition

Question 32

An example of a switching task is the _

Answer 32

Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST)

Question 33

For example, the Stroop task discussed earlier in this chapter (see Figure 9.2, p. 316) is used to assess _.

Answer 33

inhibition

Question 34

executive functions show both _ and _. This means that performance on the various types of executive functions (updating, switching, and inhibition) all _. people who perform well on updating tasks are likely to perform well on switching and inhibition tasks as well. However, these correlations are not perfect, indicating that each type of executive function is also assessing some _.

Answer 34

unity diversity correlate with one another unique abilities

Question 35

there is a substantial _ component to executive functions.

Answer 35

genetic

Question 36

executive functions are related to and predictive of _. people who perform better on tasks of executive functions have _

Answer 36

important clinical and societal outcomes; fewer behavior problems.

Question 37

there is substantial _. Although all aspects of executive functions improve over childhood, children (and even infants) who perform well on executive- function tasks tend to develop into adults with high executive-function abilities.

Answer 37

developmental stability of executive-function abilities

Question 38

The _ appears to be the neural hub for executive functions

Answer 38

prefrontal cortex

Question 39

Patients with _ damage, like Gage, often lack empathy, show alterations in mood and emotional expressions, have difficulty planning and making decisions, and generally have difficulty inhibiting thoughts and behaviors.

Answer 39

prefrontal lobe

Question 40

In neuroimaging studies, increased activity in the prefrontal cortex occurs when a person deliberately holds either _ (Nee et al., 2008).

Answer 40

verbal or visual information in mind

Question 41

Executive functions involve processes of _ (_), _, and _.

Answer 41

working memory updating switching inhibition

Question 42

Executive functions (a) _, (b) _, (c) are _, and (d) are _.

Answer 42

show both unity and diversity; have a substantial genetic component; related to and predictive of important clinical and societal outcomes; developmentally stable.

Question 43

Memory, broadly defined from the perspective of cognitive psychology, refers to _

Answer 43

all of the information in a person’s mind and to the mind’s capacity to store and retrieve that information.

Question 44

_ is the type of memory that can be brought into a person’s consciousness. It provides the content of conscious thought, and it is highly flexible.

Answer 44

Explicit memory

Question 45

_, in contrast, is the type of memory that cannot be verbalized.

Answer 45

Implicit memory

Question 46

subcategories of explicit memory:

Answer 46

1) Episodic memory (autobiographical memories) is explicit memory of one’s own past experiences. Tulving referred to episodic memory as autonoetic, or “self-knowing,” 2) Semantic memory, by contrast, is explicit memory that is not tied mentally to a particular past experience. It includes knowledge of word meanings plus the myriad facts, ideas, and schemas that constitute one’s general understanding of the world. Tulving called such knowledge noetic, or knowing.

Question 47

The model is called a _ because it proposes that the activation of any one concept initiates a spread of activity to nearby concepts in the network, which primes those concepts so they become temporarily more retrievable than they were before.

Answer 47

spreading-activation model

Question 48

subclasses of implicit memory:

Answer 48

1) classical conditioning. 2) procedural memory, which includes motor skills, habits, and unconsciously learned (tacit) rules. 3) priming

Question 49

Any loss of long-term memory, usually resulting from some sort of physical disruption or injury to the brain, is called _.

Answer 49

amnesia

Question 50

H. M.’s particular disorder (no working memory) is _, which is most strongly correlated with damage to the hippocampus

Answer 50

temporal-lobe amnesia

Question 51

The inability to remember events from infancy and early childhood is called _ and marks the beginning of true autobiographical memory

Answer 51

infantile amnesia

Question 52

explanation of infantile amnesia:

Answer 52

The children’s memory for the earlier event was related to their level of vocabulary development at the time of the original experience. until about age 4, children do not have a well- developed sense of self

Question 53

Cognitive psychologists today distinguish between two kinds of rehearsal. _ is the process by which a person holds information in working memory for a period of time, and _ is the process by which a person encodes information into the long-term store.

Answer 53

Maintenance rehearsal encoding rehearsal

Question 54

_: The immediate goal of _(same word) is not to memorize but to understand—and attempting to understand is perhaps the best way to encode information into long-term memory.

Answer 54

elaboration, or elaborative rehearsal

Question 55

One way to increase the number of items one can retain in the short- term store is to group adjacent items that are at first perceived as separate, thus making them a single item. This procedure, known as _, decreases the number of items to be remembered and increases the amount of information in each item

Answer 55

chunking

Question 56

As a step toward explaining the expertise advantage in memory, K. Anders Ericsson and his colleagues have posited the existence of a special kind of long-term memory, called _

Answer 56

long-term working memory. explanation: Such memories are encoded into long-term storage in a manner that makes the entire structure of information easily accessible to working memory, at least until the problem is solved or the task is finished. Such memories allow a physician to puzzle over a particular patient’s symptoms while driving home from work

Question 57

This most dramatic type of amnesia observed in H. M. and other patients with temporal-lobe damage is _, the loss of capacity to form long- term memories of events occurring after the injury.

Answer 57

anterograde [ăn ́-t-rō-grād ́] amnesia

Question 58

_, loss of memories of events that occurred before the injury.

Answer 58

retrograde amnesia

Question 59

The time-graded nature of retrograde amnesia suggests that long-term memories are encoded in the brain in at least two forms: _

Answer 59

a labile, easily disrupted form and a stable, not easily disrupted form.

Question 60

_ occurs when the labile memory form is converted into the stable form.

Answer 60

Consolidation

Question 61

the labile form of long-term memory involves neural connections in the _ and the stable form involves neural connections in various parts of the _, without dependence on the _

Answer 61

hippocampus cerebral cortex hippocampus

Question 62

The improved learning correlates positively with the amount of _

Answer 62

slow-wave sleep, not the amount of REM sleep.

Question 63

why memorize better during sleep?

Answer 63

There is also evidence that the hippocampus becomes activated at various times during slow-wave sleep. One prominent theory is that the hippocampal activity represents activation of the memory trace, which allows consolidation of the memory into a new, more stable form.

Question 64

In the human mind, long-term memories are stored not in isolation, but in _ in which each item is linked to many others through connections called _

Answer 64

networks associations

Question 65

A stimulus or thought that primes a particular memory is a _ for that memory.

Answer 65

retrieval cue

Question 66

principles of association by contiguity and association by similarity help _

Answer 66

retrieval from long-term memory

Question 67

used the term _ to refer to one’s generalized mental representation, or concept, of any given class of objects, scenes, or events.

Answer 67

schema

Question 68

Schemas that involve the organization of events in time, rather than of objects in space, are commonly called _ by today’s cognitive psychologists

Answer 68

scripts

Question 69

we also sometimes use memory to remember to do things in the future, termed _

Answer 69

prospective memory

Question 70

_ prospective memory involves remembering to perform a particular action when cued by a target event (e.g., giving a message to a friend when you next see him or her), whereas _ prospective memory involves remembering to execute an intended action after the passage of a certain amount of time or at a specific moment (e.g., answering e-mails in 10 minutes).

Answer 70

Event-based time-based

Question 71

There are three phases in prospective memory: _

Answer 71

(a) first, a subject forms an intention (buy milk on the way home); (b) second, the intention must be maintained; and (c) third, there must be a “switch” from the ongoing task (driving home) to execute the intention (stopping at the store and buying milk)