Chap 8: White and Sweet Winemaking Flashcards
What considerations need to be made when making white wine?
Skin contact
Clarity of the juice
Fermentation temperature and Vessel
Post-fermentation and maturation options
Blending
Clarification and stabilisation
During white winemaking, what is the principal reason the juice spends little time in contact with the skins?
To reduce the risk of oxidation
What happens in white winemaking once the grapes arrive at the winery and are sorted?
The grapes are crushed
Free run juice is separated off
Remaining grape mass is sent to the press
Why might a white winemaker choose to use whole bunches of uncrushed grapes in the press?
To further limit the contact between skins and juice
The process is gentle
It reduces the risk of oxidation
Potentially lead to wine with more purity and delicacy
In most instances the juice spends little time in contact w/ the skins.
Why might a white winemaker choose to keep juice in contact with skins for a short time? Explain how this is done and how long it lasts.
To increase flavor intensity and texture in certain aromatic varieties
It happens at a sufficiently cool temperature to inhibit fermentation & usually only lasts for a few hours
How are Orange Wines/Amber Wines made differently from White Wines?
Orange wine = winemaker may extend skin contact further and ferment grapes on their skins (as they wood in red winemaking)
Provide a few examples of where Orange/Amber Wines are traditionally made.
Georgia
Slovenia
Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Italy
How can the taste profile of orange/amber wines differ from other white wines?
Their tannins are clearly perceptible and they often have flavors of dried fruits, dried herbs, hay and nuts.
Why will a winemaker want to clarify the pressed juice after pressing and prior to fermentation?
Untreated, the juice contains fragments of cells from the skin and pulp. These can result in unpleasant aromas forming and fermentation may even stop prematurely.
How are the post-pressing particles removed from juice prior to fermentation?
Using the same techniques as employed for clarification pre-bottling (settling, centrifugation, fining and filtration)
Why may a winemaker want to keep a small amount of the fragments or ‘solids’ left after pressing?
It’s thought that it makes the completed wine less susceptible to oxidation
It adds complexity and a richer texture
Which kinds of wines are rarely fermented with particles still present? Why?
Wines that are intended to show pure varietal character, otherwise they are at risk of off-flavors forming.
What is the optimum temperature range for fermenting white wine?
12C - 22C (54F - 72F)
What is the result on the wine of fermenting at too low a temperature?
It creates pear-drop aromas and can fail to capture varietal fruit charecters.
What is the benefit of fermenting white wines at higher temperatures?
It encourages more complex, non-fruit aromas to develop
What is the risk when fermenting white wine at higher temperatures?
Varietal fruit characteristics can be lost
What is the benefit of fermenting white wines in stainless steel?
Temperature can usually be easily controlled
Which fermentation vessel tends to run at the higher end of the tempature range?
Barrels
Can white wine be fermented at optimum temperatures in barrels? Explain
Yes - They are usually small and housed in cool cellars, meaning that they dissipate their heat easily
What are the three main decision a white winemaker may be faced with directly after fermentation?
- Whether to mature in oak, or store in inert vessels, with or without oaks staves/chips
- Whether to use fine lees to add texture and flavor
- Whether to allow or block MLC
What are the three main reasons why a white winemaker may blend their wine?
Improve consistency
Enhance the balance
Create a certain style
What may be the blending focus of a white winemaker whose wines are based on primary fruit flavours?
To ensure consistency, rather than on enhancing complexity.
What is likely to be the blending focus of a white winemaker who works chiefly with non-aromatic varieties?
To enhance complexity
How may a white winemaker practically achieve complexity through blending?
By using varying amounts of lees contact, MLF and oak treatment on different batches of wine and blending them for complexity
How will clarity and stability be achieved in most white wines?
By undergoing fining and/or filtration
Why is clarity more important in white wine than red?
Their relative paleness makes haze or sediment more apparent
For which white wines is sterile filtration most important? Why?
Those with residual sugar, as they are more at risk of microbiological infection.
From the consumer’s point of view, what are the advantages of high-volume, inexpensive white wines?
Excellent value
Easy drinking
From a trusted source
Reasonable price
Why are high-volume, inexpensive whites most likely to be blends?
It can be easier to create high volumes this way
How are inexpensive white blends usually labelled?
E.g. ‘Dry White’ or ‘Fruity White’
What kinds of grapes are usually made into high-volume, inexpensive wines?
Neutral varieties, such as Chardonnay or Pinot Grigio
Describe why varieties such as Pinot Grigio and Chardonnay are often used for high-volume, inexpensive whites
Their restrained varietal character means their wines appeal to a wide range of consumers
They are both easy to ripen, especially in warm climates
What is the one potential winemaking problem for white winemakers producing high-volume, inexpensive wines in hotter countries?
In the hotter regions, the grapes which are grown can have insufficient acidity, so these needs to be corrected by the winemaker
Describe the various styles of bulk, inexpensive Chardonnay
Unoaked, with pure fruity flavours of melon and peach
Oaked, showing vanilla and toast
Both styles may contain some residual sugar
Describe the style of bulk, inexpensive Pinot Grigio
Unoaked with light pear-drop aromas/flavours
Light body
Medium acidity
Which other grape variety is sometimes used to make high-volume, inexpensive whites?
Sauvignon Blanc
Which bulk, inexpensive variety is rarely used at the lowest price points?
Sauvignon Blanc
Why (other than demand) is Sauvignon Blanc a good choice for the high-volume, inexpensive white wines?
It’s vigorous, leading to high yields
What’s the danger of using Sauvignon Blanc in inexpensive whites?
If underripe, it can be dominated by herbaceous flavors.
Why is careful handling at the winery important during the production of high-volume, inexpensive whites?
They are based on primary fruit flavors, which can be lost if oxidised
Explain how inexpensive white wines are protected from oxidation
SO2 levels are monitored throughout and the juice and wine is handled protectively. The grapes will be destemmed, crushed and pressed - there won’t be any skin contact.
Name one of the most important adjustments made to high-volume, inexpensive white wines
Acidification
Which bulk white grape variety is usually in most need of acidification when acid levels are too low? Why?
Chardonnay - It can be particularly flat and flabby when grown in a warm or hot climate.
How will bulk wines be treated before fermentation? Why?
They will be highly clarified to ensure fruity flavours are retained during fermentation.
Why may centrifugation or filtration be favored above gravity when clarifying bulk wines?
Using gravity may be too slow, tying up valuable tank space for too long
Which fermentation vessels are chosen for high-volume, inexpensive whites? Describe the fermentation
Stainless steel
Fermentation will be kept at low temperatures to retain primary fruit characteristics
Commercial yeasts are used for a quick, reliable fermentation
How may a bulk winemaker want to retain acidity and primary fruit aromas after fermentation?
Preventing MLF by chilling the wine and adding SO2. The wine will also be racked off its lees as soon as fermentation has finished and stored in another innert vessel.
Which high-volume, inexpensive wines may undergo MLF? Why?
Chardonnays - to create a soft, buttery style.
How is a toasty flavor achieved in high-volume, inexpensive wines? Why?
By using oak chips or staves in a stainless steel vessel, because barrel ageing is time-consuming and expensive.
How are sweetness levels precisely controlled in high-volume, inexpensive whites?
By fermenting dry and then sugar in the form of unfermelted grape juice or RCGM will be measured out and added.
What bulk wine consumers expect in the appearence of a wine? How is this achieved?
That they are clear, bright and without sediment. For this reason, these wines are typically stabillised, fined and sterile filtered.
How will bulk white wines be treated prior to bottling? Why?
With SO2 to minimize the risk of oxidation.
What is the main focus of the premium white winemaker?
To make high-quality wine, often at the expense of volume
What will the best winemakers adapt their winemaking practices to?
Vintage conditions
Vineyard plot
Style of wine they want to make
List five aromatic white grape varieties
Sauvignon Blanc Riesling Muscat Torrontés Gewurztraminer
What is the role of a winemaker using aromatic grape varieties?
To retain and enhance the primary fruit character and aromatic potential of these grapes in the final wine.
Describe the key characteristics of the Sauvignon Blanc grape
Highly aromatic
Early ripening
High acidity
What kind of climate is Sauvignon Blanc best suited to? Why?
Cool climates - The temperatures help to retain the grape’s refreshing characteristics.
What are Sauvignon Blanc’s most famous areas of production?
Loire Valley (FR) & Marlborough (NZ)
Describe wines of Sancerre and Pouilly Fumé
Show elegance and restraint - aromas/flavors of green apple and asparagus often with a hint of wet pebbles.
What result do the long hours of intense sunlight have on Marlborough Sauvignon?
They create very vibrant flavours
Describe the flavours of Marlborough Sauvignon Blanc
Powerful aromas of gooseberry, elderflower, grapefruit and passion fruit
Some may have herbaceous notes
Give examples of other countries producing fresh, fruity Sauvignon Blanc
South Africa and Chile
Where is Sauvignon Blanc vinified to be less aromatic but fuller bodied? How is this achieved?
Margaret River (Australia), by blending it with Semillon.
When is Sauvignon Blanc best drunk? Why?
Young, while their intense fruity flavors are still fresh.
Where is Sauvignon Blanc made using methods more associated with non-aromatic varieties?
Pessac-Léognan (Bordeaux, FR)
California
New Zealand
How is Sauvignon vinified in Pessac-Léognan? What effect does this have?
It is fermented and matured in at least a proportion of oak giving a rounder body to the wine, as well as spicy toasty notes. It is also as blended with Sémillon which further adds to the body and richness of the wine.
What are the key characteristics of the Riesling grape?
- Tolerant of cold winters and buds late, avoiding spring frosts, making it suitable for cool climates.
- It is mid to late-ripening depending on the style of wine being produced.
- Left on the vine it can accumulate sugar without losing its naturally high acidity
What flavors can Riesling produce in cooler climates?
Green fruit flavors and often floral notes
What flavors does Riesling produce in warmer climates?
Richer flavors - predominantly citrus and stone fruit, but arguably loses some delicacy
Why is Riesling ideal for making sweet wines?
Because of its ability build sugar levels, but retain its acidity
Name a variety often used for botrytised dessert wines
Riesling
Which grape is renowned for its ability to mature for sometimes decades in bottle and still retain its freshness?
Riesling
Describe flavors and charectoristis of matured Rieslings
Flavors of honey and toast
High acidity
Sometimes petrol-like aromas
How are Germany’s sweetest Rieslings made?
Using botrytised grapes
Provide examples of places, other than Germany, that are making premium Rieslings
Alsace, Austria and Austalia (particularly Clare and Eden Valleys)
Describe the Rieslings of Austria
Full range of sweetness levels, but most are either very sweet or very dry
Describe the Rieslings of Alsace
Mainly specialises in dry Rieslings
Late harvest & botrytised Rieslings made when vintage conditions permit
Describe the wines of Clare and Eden Valley
Often bone dry, with refreshing high acidity and may display aromas of lime.
List three Riesling producing regions in the new world other than Australia
Washington State
Finger Lakes AVA, New York State
New Zealand
What is the style of Riesling in New Zealand and Finger Lakes?
Fruity and off-dry
List the six ways in which a wine can be made sweet
Stopping the fermentation Adding a sweetening component Concentrating Grape Sugars * Noble rot * Drying grapes on the vine * Drying grapes after picking * Freezing grapes on the vine
What is the traditional way of stopping fermentation when sugar is still present? How does it work?
Fortification - adding grape spirit as it kills the yeast.
What is the difficulty created by stopping fermentation by fortification?
It radically alters the structural balance of the wine
Other than fortification, how else may fermentation be stopped?
By adding a high dose of SO2 or by chilling the wine as it ferments.
What must a winemaker do as soon as they have stopped fermentation? Why is this important?
Filter out any remaining yeast, because if the wine comes in contact with the yeast again then fermentation will resume.
List some wines where sweetness is achieved by stopping fermentation
German Kabinett and Spätlese
Sweet sparkling wines such as Asti from Italy.
Other than sweetness, what is the consequence of stopping the fermentaion by adding SO2 or chilling?
Typically results in low alcohol levels
What is the German name for unfermented grape juice when it is used to sweeten a wine? When in the wine making process is it added to the wine?
Süssreserve is added to dry wines when they are ready to be bottled.
How is Süssreserve created?
By filtering the juice before fermentation starts, or by dosing it with SO2.
What may be used other than Süssreserve to sweeten a wine?
RCGM
What kind of wine is often sweetened with RCGM?
High volume, inexpensive wines
What are the added bonuses of concentrating grape sugars as a means of achieving sweeter wines?
It also concentrates acids and flavours
Name wines which use Botrytis in their production
Sauternes
Tokaji
Beerenauslesen
Trockenbeerenauslesen
What causes botrytis?
The fungus Botrytis Cinerea
Other than noble rot, what else can Botrytis cause?
Grey rot
What conditions are necessary for noble rot to form as opposed to grey rot?
The grapes must be fully ripe first
They must be grown in a region that provides humid, misty mornings, followed by sunny dry afternoons
Why are damp conditions vital in the mornings for noble rot?
They allow the rot to develop
Why are dry sunny conditions in the afternoon important for noble rot in the afternoon?
After the fungus has punctured the grapes’ skins with microscopic filaments, the warm sunny conditions slow the development of the rot and cause water to evaporate through the puncture holes
List the effects of noble rot
It concentrates acids, flavors and sugars
It generates its own unique flavors within the grape as well.
What are the typical ‘botrytised flavours’?
Honey
Apricot
Citrus zest
Dried fruit
Why may several hand-pickings be needed to select the best botrytised grapes?
Because the spread of the fungus is never uniform
What is the disadvantage of harvesting botrytised grapes?
The expense of hiring a workforce to pick them (in several sweeps)
Name an area where the onset of botrytis is not annually reliable
Sauternes
What is the result if conditions are too damp for noble rot?
Grey rot may be caused, splitting the berries and encouraging infection
What is Passerillage
Drying grapes on the vine
What happens to cause Passerillage?
After the grapes have fully ripened, they begin to dehydrate and turn to raisens on the vine, increasing sugar concentration in the juice.
What is needed to ensure Passerillage?
Warm and dry autumns (or grey rot may develop)
What characteristics do wines have which have been vinified using Passerillage?
They have an over-ripe fruit character (dried fruit, tropical fruits)
How are wines sometimes labelled when they have been made by drying the grapes on the vine?
Late harvest
What does drying grapes after picking cause?
Healthy harvested grapes dehydrate, concentrating the sugar in the juice.
What conditions and practices are required when drying grapes after picking? Why?
Dry and warm conditions, in order for it to be successful, and and removal of rotten grapes (or rot will spread)
Where is drying grapes after picking practiced as a method of concentrating sugars? What is it called there?
Italy
Passito wines
Give an example of a Passito wine
Recioto della Valpolicella DOCG
What kind of quality can Passito wines have?
Raisiny
How are frozen grapes achieved for wine?
By leaving healthy grapes hanging on the vines into the winter months
The grape-pulp turns to ice when temperatures are freezing
How are frozen grapes vinified?
When pressed, the ice remains in the press, and the sugar content of the resulting juice is increased.
List two areas where frozen grapes are used for wine and the respective regional names for the resulting wines
Germany - Eiswein
Canada - Icewine
Describe the characteristics of icewines
Very pure varietal character
How may Icewine be made other than the traditional method?
By freezing the grapes at the winery
Why does fermentation naturally stop quite early when wines are made using sugar concentration methods? How low may the alcohol level be when this occurs?
Yeast struggle to survive in very sugary environments, therefore this can happen at quite low levels of alcohol, sometimes as low as 7% ABV.
Why must aromatic grapes be handled carefully?
To retain the fruit and floral aromas of the freshly picked grapes
What must be monitored throughout the process of making an aromatic white wine?
SO2 levels
In what form will aromatic white grapes be when loaded into the press?
As crushed fruit or whole bunches
When will aromatic grapes be loaded into the press?
Either immediately or after a little skin contact
Describe aromatic white wine juice just prior to fermentation
It must be relatively clean to ensure there is nothing in the juice that could mask the fruit flavours
How will the juice of an aromatic grape be clarified before fermentation?
A gentle method e.g. settling
What kinds of vessels are normally used for the fermentation of aromatic varieties? Why?
Inert vessels
There will be minimal extraction of flavour from the vessel
What kind of vessel is sometimes used in Alsace for Riesling? Why?
Large old oak vessels (foudres)
To allow a small amount of oxidation, to enhance the texture of the wine
What are the benefits of a cool fermentation on aromatic grapes?
Slow, steady fermentation
Encourage formation of primary fruit aromas and flavours
How will premium quality, sweet wines generally be fermented?
By halting fermentation with cooling or SO2.
How is fermentation generally stopped for the sweetest Rieslings made from botrytised grapes?
Fermentation stops naturally
List two reasons why MLF is avoided in Rieslings and Sauvignons. How is this done?
Acidity is desirable in these wines and the buttery aromas can overpower the wines’ fruit aromas. MLC is avoided by adding SO2 straight to the wine after fermentation.
Which post-fermentation process may Riesling undergo? Why?
Lees stirring/contact
To add texture and flavours
Do aromatic grape varities typically undergo a period of maturation prior to bottling? Why or Why not?
No - will typically be bottled as soon as possible after fermentation; the aromas gained from maturation in new oak are usually not desirable.
However, in Alsace and sometimes Germany Riesling may be kept in large old oak vats for up to a year.
How long may Riesling be kept in oak for in Alsace and Germany?
Up to a year
Describe the ‘second’ style of Sauvignon Blanc. How is it created?
It is a creamy and spicy style. Wine Making Choices: * Barrel fermented * May use Ambient yeasts (for complexity of flavors) * Matured on Lees for several months * MLC is generally avoided * Common to use new oak for a portion of the wine
Famous regions for ‘other style’ of Sauvignon Blanc?
Some Fume Blanc in California and whites of Pessac-Leognan in Bordeaux
Why are less aromatic grapes generally a good thing for winemakers?
They are able to have a bigger influence on the flavour of the wines
What is the key aim when vinifying non-aromatic grapes?
To enhance the base material provided by the grapes
How may the ‘base material’ of less aromatic grapes be enhanced when vinifying them?
By doing very little and keeping the grape flavours in relatively pure form
By using a range of techniques to add more complexity and texture
Name a common wine grape which is particularly prone to spring frost. Why?
Chardonnay
It buds early
Name a white grape which can ripen easily in a wide variety of climates
Chardonnay
Describe flavours of Chardonnay in different climates
Cool: green fruit and citrus (apple and lemon)
Moderate: white peach and melon and lemon (fleshy fruits)
Warm/hot: peach, banana and pineapple (tropical fruits)
Why is the timing of Chardonnay harvest so important in a hot climate?
It can lose acidity quickly in these climates
What charectoristics and flavors do the wines of Chablis display?
High Acidity with green apple and citrus notes - sometimes with a hint of wet stone or slate.
What flavors do the (chardonnay) wines of Cote D’Or display?
Subtle notes of stone fruit with creamy oak flavors
What charectoristics and flavors do the wines of Macconais display?
Even more ripe and rounded than Cote D’Or, with hints of toasty oak.
What post-fermentation procedures do most Chardonnays go through in Burgundy?
MLF and may producers use extended lees ageing.
What aromas can form in the best Burgundian Chardonnays?
Nuts and/or mushrooms
What is the emerging trend in vinification of Chardonnay?
Away from heavy oaking
List some regions which have built a reputation for Chardonnay wines
- California: Russian River Valley, Los Carneros
- Australia: Adelaide Hills, Margaret River, Mornington Peninsula
- New Zealand: Gisborne, Marlborough
- Chile: Casablanca Valley
What are the key viticultural characteristics of Pinot Gris?
- Early budding
- Early ripening
- In warm climates or when left on the vine it can accumulate high sugar levels, but lose much acidity
Describe Alsatian Pinot Gris
* Dry/off-dry * Oily texture * Ripe tropical fruit flavours and a hint of ginger and honey * Medium acidity * Deep coloured grape skins, so wines can be golden in appearence
Name a region other than Alsace which labels its wines as Pinot Gris (as opposed to Grigio)
New Zealand
How does New Zealand Pinot Gris differ from those of Alsace?
Same viscous texture and medium acidity, but show more pure fruit flavours and often have slightly more residual sugar.
Name areas other than Alsace and New Zealand which make Pinot Gris in a rich and usually dry style
Tasmania
Australia
Oregon
USA
Name areas of Italy which make high-quality Pinot Grigio in a dry style
Alto Adige
Trentino
Friuli-Venezia Giulia
What is the difference between Italy’s premium Pinot Grigios and the cheaper, high-volume versions made in the plains of Veneto?
More depth of flavour from the premium regions
Other than climate and viticulture, what else can influence the style of Pinot Grigio in Italy?
The choice of clone
Describe the Pinot Grigio clones used in the northerly alpine regions of Italy
Same clones as typically found in Germany and France, which have small berries and are capable of greater flavor concentration.
Describe the clone of Pinot Grigio used in the plains of the Veneto for high-volume, inexpensive wines
A clone known for its pale skin and large, fleshy pulp. It produces relatively neutral wines, especially when combined with high yields and early harvesting.
What is the most common first step when vinifying Chardonnay?
Using whole bunches in the press
What might a wine maker do with less aromatic grape varieties during pressing that they wouldn’t with aromatic varieties? Why?
Controlled exposure to oxygen at this stage is thought to improve the wine’s ability to age vs. this would be detrimental aromatic varieties as they would lose some of their delicate aromas.
How is clarification typically carried out for less aromatic varieties?
Likely via a gentle method such as settling. However, depending on the style being produced the winemaker may chose to leave some solid matter in the grape juice for added texture and complexity.
Which regions are stainless steel or concrete vessels often used for fermentation of less aromatic white wines? Name the varietal(s) typically vinified this way in the associated regions.
Why is it used?
- Chablis - Chardonnay
- Pinot Grigios from NE Italy
- Pinot Gris from New Zealand
To retain fresh fruit flavors
Which region is small new oak barrels often used for fermentation of less aromatic white wines? Name the varietal typically vinified this way in the associated region.
Why is it used?
Chardonnay from Cote D’Or
To give toasty flavors and a rounder texture.
Which region is large old oak vessels often used for fermentation of less aromatic white wines? Name the varietal typically vinified this way in the associated region.
Commonly used for Pinot Gris in Alsace.
Some Pinot Gris style wines contain residual sugar. How is this achieved in Alsace and New Zealand?
- NZ - prematurely stopping the fermentation by chilling or adding SO2
- Alsace - high degree of ripeness may mean fermentation stops naturally, leaving some risidual sugar.
What is one of the most fundimental wine making decisions a winemaker must decide, after fermentation of a less aromatic white?
Whether to put the wine through barrel maturation and if so, whether all the wine or just a small portion will be matured in oak.
How is Lees Stirring carried out?
The winemaker uses a rod to stir the lees in the barrel.
The rod is lowered to the bottom of the barrel where the layer of lees has collected over time and dragged through the lees to stir them up. With continous stirring all the lees become fully mixed into the wine.
Why might MLC be encouraged in non-aromatic varieties?
To give the wine a rounder and creamier texture
Which region is MLC commonly carried out for all of it’s premium white wines?
All of Burgundy (including Chablis)
Why might MLC still be avoided in non-aromatic varieties?
Decreases the perception of acidity and diminishes primary fruit flavors, so it may not be desirable for fruity styles of wine.
What other technique is often used in the production of both Chardonnay and Pinot Gris? Why?
Extended contact with the fine lees to give a richer, rounder texture.
How might a winemaker enhance the effect of fine lees contact?
Using lees stirring - this involves breaking up the sediment of the fine lees and mixing it with the wine.
