Ch9 - HH

Question 1

Physical needs and resources needed

Answer 1

Needs:
• An appropriate quantity and variety of nutritious food
• Conditions for adequate sleep
• Safety
• Adequate housing and access to healthcare
• Safety from personal danger and threats
Resources:
• Knowledge of nutrition
• Material resources to provide adequate housing
• Knowledge of how to keep children safe

Question 2

Social needs and resources

Answer 2

Needs:
• Interaction
• Socialisation
• Family interaction
• Education
• Love
• Attention
• Confidence and opportunities for interaction
• Achievement and independence
Resources:
• Education and knowledge about how to support a child’s development socially
• Support network
• Adequate financial resources to participate in social activities

Question 3

Emotional needs and resources

Answer 3

Needs:
• Positive parenting practices with warmth and praise to create emotional security and stability
• Healthy relationships with parents and caregivers to learn self-respect and develop confidence, achievement
• Healthy relationships with parents and caregivers to learn independence and freedom
Resources:
• Education and knowledge about how to support a child’s development emotionally
• Support network
• Adequate financial resources which may reduce stress levels about money needed for children

Question 4

Intellectual needs and resources

Answer 4

Needs:
• Learning, communication and skill development
• Opportunities for problem solving, learning and understanding
Resources:
• Education and knowledge about how to support a child’s development intellectually
• Adequate financial resources

Question 5

Social support needed for new parents

Answer 5

• Access to money, babysitters
• Help with meal preparation, care of other children
• Sharing of information
• Assistance with transport
• Help in case of emergencies or with household tasks

Question 6

Emotional support needed for new parents

Answer 6

• Access to people who can offer new parents emotional support through encouragement, active listening and reassurance
• Access to people who are willing to share ideas and advice in a non-judgemental way

Question 7

Resources needed for new parents (3 government - 2 others)

Answer 7

• Knowledge – health literacy (knowing not to smoke, drink, access health care, etc)
• Material resources – money (needed for clothes, pram, car seat, food, hospital bills, etc), credit and possessions such as housing and items for daily living
• Federal government resources – parental leave pay, the pregnancy, birth and baby helpline, childcare subsidy, raising children website, Medicare (increases accessibility to antenatal care, allowing early detection of issues during pregnancy), family tax benefit, dad and partner pay.
• State government resources – maternal and child health service (appointments with a nurse to check on development and health of baby), the maternal and child health app (provides trustworthy information), my health, learning and development record (paper record of child’s health and wellbeing, growth and development and reminds parents to attend maternal and child health visits), maternal and child health line (24/7 phone support service by nurses).
• Local government resources – recreation facilities (walking and cycling paths), providing long day care, providing playgroups.

Question 8

Describe the process of fertilisation

Answer 8

• Occurs in the fallopian tube
• Sperm release an enzyme to break into the ovum
• Occurs when sperm penetrate an ovum
• The ovum releases an electrical signal to lock out other sperm, once a sperm has penetrated the outer membrane
• The genetic material is contained in the head of the sperm, and it is released when it penetrates the ovum and the genetic material fuses with the genetic material of the ovum to create a single cell called a zygote

Question 9

1st stage of prenatal development (time frame and characteristics)

Answer 9

• Geminal: 1-2 weeks
  Starts at fertilisation and ends with implantation
  • The zygote travels down the fallopian tube.
  • The zygote continues to divide and multiply and develop into a blastocyst.

Question 9

1st stage of prenatal development (time frame and characteristics)

Answer 9

Geminal: 1-2 weeks
Starts at fertilisation and ends with implantation
• The zygote travels down the fallopian tube.
• The zygote continues to divide and multiply and develop into a blastocyst.

Question 10

2nd stage of prenatal development (time frame and characteristics)

Answer 10

Embryonic: 3-8 weeks
From fertilisation until week 8
• Stage is characterised by cell differentiation.
• Cells take on roles such as skin, heart, blood, bone cells
• Week 8 – 2 cm’s long but internal organs and systems have begun to form
• Embryo is sensitive to teratogens – tobacco, alcohol and medication
• 90% of structures in an adult can be found in an 8-week-old foetus.

Question 11

3rd stage of prenatal development (time frame and characteristics)

Answer 11

Foetal: 9-38 weeks
9th week until birth
• 2 - 3 cm’s – approx. 50cm
• All organs and systems that were formed in embryonic are now functioning
• Placenta is functioning at 14 weeks (baby won’t survive if there is a problem with the placenta)
• Sex organs take shape at week 15
• Fat is deposited under the skin in the last few weeks.

Question 12

Risk factors during pregnancy (list three and how)

Answer 12

• Alcohol consumption
  • When alcohol is consumed it crosses the placenta from the mum’s blood to the baby’s blood resulting in foetal alcohol spectrum disorder. Alcohol narrows the blood vessels in the placenta and umbilical cord, restricting blood supply to the foetus. Results in risk of premature birth and stillbirth, low birthweight, flattened face, heart defects.
• Smoking
  • Contains thousands of chemicals that acts to reduce oxygen flow to the placenta and exposes the developing foetus to numerous toxins. Increases risk of low birthweight, miscarriage, ectopic pregnancy, birth defects.
• Undernutrition
  • Results in baby being low birthweight, increasing risk of low oxygen levels at birth, inability to maintain body temperature, difficulty breathing, sudden infant death syndrome.
• Maternal diet
  Avoid foods that contain bacteria Listeria monocytogenes - causes listeria infection resulting in miscarriage, stillbirth or premature death. In foods such as soft serve ice cream, soft cheeses, precooked/prepared foods (buffet salads, quiches) and raw seafood (sashimi).

Question 13

Protective factors during pregnancy (list 3 and how)

Answer 13

• Nutritious diet (high in folate, iron and iodine)
  • Folate: Assists with development of nervous system. Decreases chance of spina bifida – decreasing walking difficulties, reduced sensation in legs and feet, deformities of the spine.
  • Iodine: Needed for healthy development of the baby’s brain and nervous system. Can result in stunted growth and intellectual disability.
  • Iron: Needed for demand of oxygen for developing foetus and increased energy needs of the mother.
• Antenatal care
  • The nurses monitor the health and wellbeing of the mother and baby, identify and risk factors and provide health information. These visits ensure normal foetal development (e.g. proper birth weight), reduce rates of premature birth and provide counselling and reassurance to the mother.
• Emotional support
• Immunisation

Question 14

Characteristics of physical development during the infancy stage

Answer 14

• Weight doubles by 6 months, triples by 12 months.
• Proportions of body start to change, reflecting the cephalocaudal pattern of development.
• Bones continue to harden. By one year, infant can support own weight.
• Reflexes are replaced by controlled movements.
• Basic fine and gross motor skills are learned.
• Stand and walk at one; throw and kick large ball at two

Question 15

Characteristics of social development during the infancy stage

Answer 15

• Family is the most significant influence.
• Totally dependent on caregiver.
• Smiles at six weeks.
• Improved motor skills allow for social interactions in games etc.
• Learns culturally acceptable behaviours by observing role models.
• Learns about sharing and taking turns with other children.

Question 16

Characteristics of emotional development during the infancy stage

Answer 16

• Emotional attachment is formed with caregiver. Helps infant feel secure, safe and loved, and starts building trust.
• By eight months, can express anger and happiness and may become frustrated if their activities are interrupted.
• By 12 months, becomes sensitive to approval from parents.
• May experience anxiety if separated from parents.
• Expresses feelings of joy, anger, excitement.

Question 17

Characteristics of intellectual development during the infancy stage

Answer 17

• All senses work from birth and infant is capable of learning.
• Makes sense of the world by using senses.
• By 18 months, can imitate and pretend in play activities.
• Can carry out basic problem solving and ‘cause and effect’ by the end of infancy.
• Language development is rapid. Says first word between seven and nine months.
• May explore new environments and develop intellectual capabilities.

Question 18

Characteristics of physical development during early childhood

Answer 18

• Slow and steady growth
• Grows about 6 cm per year and gains approx. 2.5 kg per year.
• Permanent teeth appear at about six years of age.
• Body proportions change
• Leaner body type as fat levels decrease
• Motor skills continue to develop, e.g. kicking, catching, throwing.
• Fine motor skills develop, such as tying shoelaces and using scissors.
• Bones continue to lengthen and ossify.

Question 19

Characteristics of social development during early childhood

Answer 19

• Family remains the primary social contact.
• Participates in more family routines.
• Plays with other children at play groups, childcare etc.
• Increasing independence
• Behaviours such as toilet training and eating with a knife and fork are established.
• Play encourages children to learn roles.
• Develops relationships at school etc.
• Likes to be accepted

Question 20

Characteristics of emotional development during early childhood

Answer 20

• Will begin to develop a sense of empathy
• Shows pride in accomplishing new skills
• May display jealousy
• Begins to develop an identity
• Enjoys new experiences
• Mood can change quickly.
• Shows affection and responds positively to it
• Jealous of attention given to others
• Expresses emotions through play
• Self-esteem is usually high.
• Learns to control anger in later years of childhood
• Compares themselves to others (self-esteem)

Question 21

Characteristics of intellectual development during early childhood

Answer 21

• Language skills develop rapidly.
• By the age of five, children know about 1500–2500 words.
• Can remember and follow instruction or directions
• Learns to read and carry out basic mathematical problems
• Attention span increases
• Develops empathy
• Finds abstract thought difficult

Question 22

The impact of early life experiences on future health and development (epigenetic, body weight, early relationships)

Answer 22

Epigenetics:
- Epigenome: the set of instructions that decides which bits of your DNA are activated (or switched on or off). Can be affected by positive experiences such (e.g. supportive relationships, attachment, play). And negative experiences (e.g. smoking, alcohol consumption, diet).
Body weight:
- Low birthweight: Increased risk of asthma during childhood, increased risk of bronchiolitis, feeding difficulties, increased risk of deafness and cerebral palsy, poor sucking and swallowing reflexes.
- Overweight: Increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes, premature death, high blood pressure, bone and joint problems, low self-esteem, poor peer relationships.
Early relationships – with parents:
- Can influence success of failure of future intimate relationships, ability to maintain emotional balance and rebound from disappointment and misfortune.
- Extreme poverty, paternal depression and family violence without adequate support disrupts the development of the brain (poor literacy and communication, mental health problems, aggression).

Question 23

The impact of early life experiences on future health and development (abuse, parental warmth, stress, play and sleep)

Answer 23

Short term effects of child abuse:
- Anxious and fearful
- Sleeping difficulties
- Aggressive behaviour or isolating themselves
- Not attending school/social events
Long term effects of child abuse:
- They learn to solve problems with violence
- Behave in destructive ways in their adult relationships
Parental warmth – showing affectionate behaviours, interest and involvement in child’s life:
- Leads to increased responsiveness in child’s mood and feelings, positive expressions of approval and support.
- Increased social health and wellbeing through successful interpersonal relationships at school, etc
Early environment and learning opportunities:
Stress:
- Releases cortisol which in the first days of pregnancy suppresses the mum’s immune system, preventing the mum’s body from attacking the foetus, regulating blood flow between the placenta and the foetus.
- High stress leads to premature birth and a baby which has a higher sensitivity to stress, leading to increased anxiety
Play:
- Child need to have at least an hour of unstructured play a day for optimal brain development.
- Emotional benefits: reduction in stress and anxiety, increased joy and self esteem
- Social benefits: increased empathy and sharing, improving relationships and attachment.
- Physical benefits: increased efficiency of immune, endocrine and cardiovascular systems. Increased coordination and balance and fine and gross motor skills. Increased creativity, problem solving and language skills.
Sleep:
- Leads to disruptive behaviour pattens, diminished intellectual performance and greater risk of obesity in childhood and adulthood.

Question 24

The intergenerational nature of health and wellbeing

Answer 24

The health and wellbeing and development of one generation influences the health and wellbeing and development of the next. The intergenerational concept of health and wellbeing means that early life experiences are linked to health and wellbeing and development in the adult stage (e.g. risk factors such as low birthweight or stress experienced in early life can have effects that accumulate over time to create chronic disease in adulthood).

Question 25

Analyse factors to be considered and resources required for the transition to parenthood

Answer 25

Parenting is the process of promoting the development and health and wellbeing of a child from infancy to adulthood. When individuals are thinking about parenthood, they must consider whether they can meet a child’s needs. These include physical (food, safety and shelter), emotional (security, stability), social (love, attention and achievement) and intellectual needs (mental stimulation and learning opportunities). They also need to consider whether they are ready to make any needed changes in their lifestyle in order to have a healthy pregnancy and healthy child. Being prepared to eat a healthy diet, and avoid smoking and alcohol are some of the changes that may need to be made when considering the parenting role. A further consideration relates to their level of support from family and friends and whether they are ready to accept responsibility for promoting an optimal environment for the development of their child. To undertake the parenting role, social support is required. This refers to the informal, emotional or practical help that parents receive from relatives, friends, co-workers or neighbours. Parents with higher levels of social support are better able to cope with stress and be resilient. Parents also require emotional support. This is the feeling that others understand your needs and will try to help you. Having people who are willing to share ideas and advice and talk things over, particularly those who are in the same position, increases the ability to cope with problems related to parenting. When considering the parenting role, individuals should be aware of their level of family resources, such as time, income, knowledge and housing as well as access to government and community resources such as antenatal care.

Question 26

Explain factors that influence development during the prenatal and early childhood stages of the lifespan

Answer 26

During pregnancy, foods that are included in the maternal diet must include a variety across and within the five core food groups to supply sufficient nutrients for optimal foetal development. Iodine is required in greater amounts during pregnancy to promote optimal brain and nervous system development in the foetus. If iodine is deficient during pregnancy, consequences for physical development include stunted growth and can include intellectual disability. Implications for intellectual development later in the lifespan arise, as pregnant mothers who were deficient in iodine are more likely to have children with learning difficulties.

Question 27

Explain health and wellbeing as an intergenerational concept

Answer 27

The factors that shape prenatal development also shape health and wellbeing and development between generations and over the lifespan. This means that parents’ health and wellbeing influences the health and wellbeing of children, and conditions in prenatal development are linked to health and wellbeing outcomes later in life. Risk factors can be independent, but they can accumulate and interact over time. Conditions such as stress that parents encounter or tobacco smoking during pregnancy affect prenatal development by leading to low birth weight. Low birth weight is linked to later development of adult chronic diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, high blood pressure and obesity. The decisions that parents make and the resources that they
have access to are important to creating an optimal prenatal environment. A pregnant woman who makes use of social support such as advice or childminding help from grandparents and friends, can reduce stress levels, and therefore have less risk of a premature birth and a baby who displays a much lower sensitivity to stress. As the baby grows from infancy to toddlerhood, they will be less likely to exhibit high levels of anxiety when faced with new experiences such as going to school.