ch.8 thinking and reasoning Flashcards
(137 cards)
1
Q
Cognitive Psychology
A
The branch of psychology that focuses on the study of higher mental processes
2
Q
What are the higher mental processes?
A
- Thinking
- Language
- Memory
- Problem solving
- Knowing
- Reasoning
- Judging
- Decision making
3
Q
The behaviorist model only studies what?
A
The behaviorist model only studies observable external behavior
4
Q
Where is the stimulus in the behaviorist model?
A
In the environment like a peace of cake
5
Q
What is the black box in the behaviorist model?
A
It is something that cant be studied like feeling drawn to the peace of cake
6
Q
What is the response in the behaviorist model?
A
The response is a behavior which is adapting to the stimulus or reacting to it
7
Q
The cognitive model only studies what?
A
Can scientifically study internal behavior
8
Q
Can the behaviorist model measure the brain reliably?
A
The behaviorist model cant measure the brain reliably
9
Q
Where is the input in the cognitive model?
A
The input is in the environment like environmental processes
10
Q
What is the mediational process in the cognitive model?
A
The mediational process is a mental event
11
Q
What is the output in the cognitive model?
A
The output is a behavior in the cognitive model either a behavioral or thought response
12
Q
What mediates the output that we show in the cognitive model?
A
Our higher mental processes mediate the output
13
Q
What is thinking?
A
Thinking is brain activity that people use to manipulate information including words, visual images, sounds, and other types of data
14
Q
What are the building blocks of thought?
A
mental images + concepts
15
Q
What are mental images?
A
Mental images are a representation of an object or an event in the mind
16
Q
Every sensory modality produces what?
A
Produces corresponding mental images
17
Q
Visual stimuli produces
A
Visual mental images
18
Q
Audio stimuli produces
A
Auditory mental images
19
Q
Mental images have properties of?
A
They have properties of the actual stimuli they represent
20
Q
Mental rotation of objects follow?
A
Rules of physical rotation
21
Q
Production of mental images improve various skills
A
mental improvisation– skill improvement in piano players and improved performance in sports
22
Q
What are concepts?
A
They are mental groupings of similar objects, events, or people
23
Q
What do concepts help us with?
A
- They help us to organize complex phenomena into categories that are easier to understand and remember
- They also help with classifying new objects/information on the basis of our past experiences
24
Q
Examples for concepts
A
- Problem solving strategies fit into the concept of “cognitive psychology”
- Buying an iPhone X you still find your way to use it practically if you only used android phone
25
How do concepts influence our behavior?
- If you classify an animal as a dog you can perhaps pet it if a wolf no way
- if you did not classify dry cat food as pet food and ate it without realizing it perhaps you would like it and want it more
26
What are prototypes?
They are highly representative examples of a concept
27
Example for a prototype
- You have a typical bird and an ostrich both are birds yet the typical bird is more prototypical than the ostrich
- You have a normal library and a TV library both are libraries yet the normal library is more prototypical than the TV library
28
What is reasoning?
Is the process by which information is used to draw conclusions and make decisions
29
What are the two types of formal reasoning?
1-Deductive reasoning
| 2-Inductive reasoning
30
What is deductive reasoning?
Deductive reasoning is reasoning from the general, broad ideas to the specific, narrow ones
31
Example for deductive reasoning
Theory-hypothesis-operational definition
32
What is inductive reasoning?
Is the reasoning from the specific to the general
33
Example for inductive reasoning
Studying a sample-generalizing to population
34
We tend to make mistakes in our reasoning what are easier shortcuts for reasoning?
Algorithms and Heuristics
35
What are algorithms?
Is a rule when applied guarantees a solution to a problem
36
What are heuristics?
Common sense rules that we apply for practical uses
37
What are the two type of heuristics?
1-Availabilty heuristic
| 2-Familiarity heuristic
38
What is availability heuristic?
Its judging the probability of an event occurring on the basis of how easy it is to think of examples
39
Example for availability heuristic
People being more afraid to die in a plane crash than in a car accident although statistics show airplane travel is more safer than car travel
40
What is familiarity heuristic?
Familiar items are seen as superior to those that are unfamiliar
41
Example for familiarity heuristic
You see certain familiar symptoms in a patient then you reach a diagnosis that was obvious to you and perhaps you didnt look into details that maybe the patient suffered from different conditions
42
What are the rules of Tower of Hanoi?
- You should move each disk one at a time
- A larger disk should never sit on top of a smaller disk
- finish with the least amount of moves possible
43
What are the stages we employ during problem solving?
1-Preparation
2-Producing solutions
3-Evaluating solutions
44
How do we prepare for a familiar problem?
We spend very little time preparing to solve it (familiarity)
45
How do we prepare for a new problem?
We spend much more time trying to understand the problem and rules for solving it
46
Problems can be
1-Well-defined
| 2-Ill-defined
47
What is a well-defined problem?
Where the nature of the problem and information needed to solve it is clear
48
What is a ill-defined problem?
Where problems specifications and potential solutions are much less obvious
49
We spend much more time in the preparation stage for which type of problem?
For ill-defined problems
50
In the preparation stage we need to organize problems into three types
1-Arrangement problems
2-Problems of inducing structure
3-Transformation problems
51
What are arrangement problems?
Its where we rearrange elements of the problem to satisfy required criteria of the solution
52
When arranging problems there are only one or a few rearrangements that will be valid
1-A word anagram
| 2-A rearrangement task
53
What are problems of inducing structure?
- Identifying existing relationships in the presented problem
- Arriving at the solution with the found out relationship
54
Examples for problems of inducing structure
1-Analogies
| 2-A number series
55
What are transformation problems?
Is the purpose of reaching the goal from an initial stage and progressing via a set of rules
56
Examples for transformation problems
1-Water jars
2-Coin displacement
3-Tower of Hanoi
57
What effects how we reach a solution?
The first impression
58
How is the problem initially framed?
By the verbal/pictorial/numerical framing of the problem forms a first impression with the problem
59
How do we deal with simple problems when producing solutions?
Simple problems- we may already have a direct solution which could be retrieved from long-term memory
60
How do we deal with harder problems when producing solutions?
We need to generate solutions
61
What is the most basic solution when producing solutions?
The most basic solution is trial-and-error
62
Can the trial-and-error technique work for the solutions of simple problems?
They may work in simple problems where errors can be tolerable
63
Can the trial-and-error technique work for the solutions of hard problems?
It does not work with problems requiring some level of complex thinking
64
What are better solutions for producing solutions?
Heuristics since they are adapted for problem solving
65
What are the three most frequently used heuristics?
- Means-ends analysis
- Backtracking
- Forming sub goals
66
How can we use the means-ends analysis?
By first examining the final goal and determining the best strategy for reaching that goal
67
Means-ends analysis includes what?
Includes repeatedly testing current condition vs. desired condition
68
What is the criticism for means-ends analysis when producing solutions?
Sometimes means-ends analysis can be counterproductive which means it can have the opposite of your desired effect
69
What is required when the means-ends analysis is counterproductive?
You are required to take a step back and put distance between your desired goal and current condition
70
What are sub goals when producing a solution?
Its dividing the problem into intermediate steps then solving these steps one by one
71
We also use insight when
producing a solution
72
What is insight?
Its a sudden awareness of the relationships among various elements that were seen to be unrelated previously
73
What do we do when the solution is clear when evaluating solutions?
If the solution is clear- we will know it is the correct one
74
What do we do when the solution is not clear when evaluating solutions?
If the solution is not clear- evaluation of possible solutions is more difficult
75
Behavioral economics
How psychological factors influence financial decision making
76
There are two common problems associated with our way of evaluating our solutions
1-Functional fixedness
| 2-Confirmation bias
77
What is functional fixedness?
Its the tendency to think of an object only in ways it is most typically used
78
Example for functional fixedness
- A book is used for reading what else?
| - A glass jar is for putting beans what else?
79
What does functional fixedness prevent us from?
It prevents us from seeing beyond the constraints of the problem
80
What is confirmation bias?
Its the tendency to prefer information that supports our initial hypothesis and to ignore contradicting ideas and information
81
What do we use to evaluate our solutions?
- Insight
| - Creativity
82
What is creativity?
Its the ability to generate original ideas or solve problems in novel ways
83
Highly creative people show what type of thinking?
Divergent thinking
84
What is divergent thinking?
It is thinking aimed towards generating multiple solutions that have unusual as well as valid responses to problems (out of the box thinking)
85
What is convergent thinking?
It is thinking aimed at viewing the one and only solution to the problem that is based on earlier information and logical analysis
86
Highly creative people
- Show cognitive complexity
- Are often interested in the abstract problems and possible have a wider rage of interests
- Do not necessarily relate to a high IQ
87
What is cognitive complexity?
Preferring detailed solutions to problems (more complex thought content)
88
What is language?
Its the communication of information through symbols arranged according to systematic rules
89
Language consists of two factors
- Communication
| - How we think about and understand the world
90
What are the basic set of rules for language?
Grammar
91
What is grammar?
Its the system of rules that determine how we can express our thoughts
92
What are the 3 major components of grammar?
1-Phonology
2-Syntax
3-Semantics
93
What is phonology?
Its the study of the smallest units of speech which are called phonemes
94
What are phonemes?
Smallest sound units of speech (t, k, kr, a, e, i)
95
Phonology consists of?
- Phonemes
| - Syllables
96
What are syntax?
The ways in which words and phrases can be combined to form full sentences (rules that order words into a meaningful arrangement)
97
Syntax consist of
Phrases
98
What are phrases?
One or more words functioning as a unit in a sentence
99
What are semantics?
The meanings of words and sentences
100
Every word has a particular what?
Has a particular semantic structure
101
Example for semantic structure
Boy, Man
| similar (male) diff (age)
102
What do semantic rules reflect?
They reflect subtle nuances in meaning
103
What is babbling?
Meaningless speech like sounds made by toddlers
104
How does a baby speak at 3 months?
Random phonemes un-related pitch and tone
105
How does a baby speak at 12 months?
Specific phonemes pitch and tone related to language in their environment
106
How do 12 months (1 year old) produce language?
Producing one word sentences
107
Language comprehension precedes what?
Language production
108
What is telegraphic speech?
Sentences in which only essential words are used
109
How do 24 months- 30 months (2 years old) produce language?
50 words on average
110
How do 30 months (2.5 years old) produce language?
Several hundred of words on average
111
How do 36 months (3 years old) produce language?
Producing plurals, acquiring the use of past tense
112
Overgeneralization
Children over apply a language rule and make a linguistic error
113
Example for overgeneralization
- She walked
- He talked
- She eated
- He runned
114
Example for telegraphic speech
- Want food
- Go walk
- Dawning dog
115
Learning theory approach
This view suggests that children first learn to speak by being rewarded for making sounds that approximate speech
116
Language acquisition follows the principles of?
Of reinforcement and conditioning
117
Example for the learning theory approach?
Child saying "mama"
Reward: hug, kiss, smile
Effect: repeating mama more likely
118
What are the strengths of the learning theory approach?
- Children become more proficient in language use if their parents speak to them frequently
- Higher sophistication in the speech of caregivers, better use of vocabulary, better general intellectual abilities
119
Less approximate...reward successful instance...more approximate
A process called shaping
120
What are the weaknesses of the learning theory approach?
We reward them (by answering back) equally for
| "why the dog wont eat?" and "why wont the dog eat"
121
The nativist approach
This view suggests that human brain has an inherited neural system that lets us understand the structure of language in particular ways at certain periods in our lives
122
All the worlds languages share a common underlying structure that is?
Pre-wired, biologically determined, and universal
123
Chomskys universal grammar
An inherited neural system that helps us understand the structure of language
124
Are we born with chomskys universal grammar?
Yes its an inborn capability (we are born with it)
125
Chomskys universal grammar gives us what?
Gives us techniques and strategies to learn our native languages
126
What are the strengths of chomskys universal grammar?
- Human brains have a much more sophisticated neural structure than our ancestors and much more sophisticated communication
- Human brain has specific sites for language production, language perception, speech initiation
127
What are the weaknesses (criticism) for chomskys universal grammar?
Similarity with chimpanzees
128
The Interactionist Approach
Which suggests that language development is produced through a combination of genetically determined tendencies and environmental circumstances that help teach language
129
Language acquisition is both
Biological and social
130
Biological language acquisition
Is the hardware where the brain is hardwired to enable language acquisition
131
Social language acquisition
Is the software where environmental exposure to language allows us to understand its use, and produce it appropriately
132
Linguistic- relatively hypothesis
Language shapes and may determine the way people perceive and understand the world
133
Language provides us with categories how do we use them?
To understand others, and the events that happen in the world
134
Language influences Thought
- Russians can better distinguish shades of blue
| - Icelandic language different words for types of wave
135
Thought influences Language
- Our mental processes shape the way we use language
- We create expressions in language by referring to certain rules and we shape our own sentences by thinking on what we want to communicate
136
Do animals use language?
They communicate in rudimentary (not fully developed) forms
137
The language animals use lacks
- Grammar
- Complexity
- Novel constructions
