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Psychology > ch.8 thinking and reasoning > Flashcards

ch.8 thinking and reasoning Flashcards

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1
Q

Cognitive Psychology

A

The branch of psychology that focuses on the study of higher mental processes

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2
Q

What are the higher mental processes?

A
  • Thinking
  • Language
  • Memory
  • Problem solving
  • Knowing
  • Reasoning
  • Judging
  • Decision making
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3
Q

The behaviorist model only studies what?

A

The behaviorist model only studies observable external behavior

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4
Q

Where is the stimulus in the behaviorist model?

A

In the environment like a peace of cake

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5
Q

What is the black box in the behaviorist model?

A

It is something that cant be studied like feeling drawn to the peace of cake

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6
Q

What is the response in the behaviorist model?

A

The response is a behavior which is adapting to the stimulus or reacting to it

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7
Q

The cognitive model only studies what?

A

Can scientifically study internal behavior

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8
Q

Can the behaviorist model measure the brain reliably?

A

The behaviorist model cant measure the brain reliably

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9
Q

Where is the input in the cognitive model?

A

The input is in the environment like environmental processes

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10
Q

What is the mediational process in the cognitive model?

A

The mediational process is a mental event

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11
Q

What is the output in the cognitive model?

A

The output is a behavior in the cognitive model either a behavioral or thought response

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12
Q

What mediates the output that we show in the cognitive model?

A

Our higher mental processes mediate the output

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13
Q

What is thinking?

A

Thinking is brain activity that people use to manipulate information including words, visual images, sounds, and other types of data

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14
Q

What are the building blocks of thought?

A

mental images + concepts

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15
Q

What are mental images?

A

Mental images are a representation of an object or an event in the mind

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16
Q

Every sensory modality produces what?

A

Produces corresponding mental images

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17
Q

Visual stimuli produces

A

Visual mental images

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18
Q

Audio stimuli produces

A

Auditory mental images

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19
Q

Mental images have properties of?

A

They have properties of the actual stimuli they represent

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20
Q

Mental rotation of objects follow?

A

Rules of physical rotation

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21
Q

Production of mental images improve various skills

A

mental improvisation– skill improvement in piano players and improved performance in sports

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22
Q

What are concepts?

A

They are mental groupings of similar objects, events, or people

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23
Q

What do concepts help us with?

A
  • They help us to organize complex phenomena into categories that are easier to understand and remember
  • They also help with classifying new objects/information on the basis of our past experiences
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24
Q

Examples for concepts

A
  • Problem solving strategies fit into the concept of “cognitive psychology”
  • Buying an iPhone X you still find your way to use it practically if you only used android phone
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25
Q

How do concepts influence our behavior?

A
  • If you classify an animal as a dog you can perhaps pet it if a wolf no way
  • if you did not classify dry cat food as pet food and ate it without realizing it perhaps you would like it and want it more
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26
Q

What are prototypes?

A

They are highly representative examples of a concept

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27
Q

Example for a prototype

A
  • You have a typical bird and an ostrich both are birds yet the typical bird is more prototypical than the ostrich
  • You have a normal library and a TV library both are libraries yet the normal library is more prototypical than the TV library
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28
Q

What is reasoning?

A

Is the process by which information is used to draw conclusions and make decisions

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29
Q

What are the two types of formal reasoning?

A

1-Deductive reasoning

2-Inductive reasoning

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30
Q

What is deductive reasoning?

A

Deductive reasoning is reasoning from the general, broad ideas to the specific, narrow ones

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31
Q

Example for deductive reasoning

A

Theory-hypothesis-operational definition

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32
Q

What is inductive reasoning?

A

Is the reasoning from the specific to the general

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33
Q

Example for inductive reasoning

A

Studying a sample-generalizing to population

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34
Q

We tend to make mistakes in our reasoning what are easier shortcuts for reasoning?

A

Algorithms and Heuristics

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35
Q

What are algorithms?

A

Is a rule when applied guarantees a solution to a problem

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36
Q

What are heuristics?

A

Common sense rules that we apply for practical uses

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37
Q

What are the two type of heuristics?

A

1-Availabilty heuristic

2-Familiarity heuristic

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38
Q

What is availability heuristic?

A

Its judging the probability of an event occurring on the basis of how easy it is to think of examples

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39
Q

Example for availability heuristic

A

People being more afraid to die in a plane crash than in a car accident although statistics show airplane travel is more safer than car travel

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40
Q

What is familiarity heuristic?

A

Familiar items are seen as superior to those that are unfamiliar

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41
Q

Example for familiarity heuristic

A

You see certain familiar symptoms in a patient then you reach a diagnosis that was obvious to you and perhaps you didnt look into details that maybe the patient suffered from different conditions

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42
Q

What are the rules of Tower of Hanoi?

A
  • You should move each disk one at a time
  • A larger disk should never sit on top of a smaller disk
  • finish with the least amount of moves possible
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43
Q

What are the stages we employ during problem solving?

A

1-Preparation
2-Producing solutions
3-Evaluating solutions

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44
Q

How do we prepare for a familiar problem?

A

We spend very little time preparing to solve it (familiarity)

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45
Q

How do we prepare for a new problem?

A

We spend much more time trying to understand the problem and rules for solving it

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46
Q

Problems can be

A

1-Well-defined

2-Ill-defined

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47
Q

What is a well-defined problem?

A

Where the nature of the problem and information needed to solve it is clear

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48
Q

What is a ill-defined problem?

A

Where problems specifications and potential solutions are much less obvious

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49
Q

We spend much more time in the preparation stage for which type of problem?

A

For ill-defined problems

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50
Q

In the preparation stage we need to organize problems into three types

A

1-Arrangement problems
2-Problems of inducing structure
3-Transformation problems

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51
Q

What are arrangement problems?

A

Its where we rearrange elements of the problem to satisfy required criteria of the solution

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52
Q

When arranging problems there are only one or a few rearrangements that will be valid

A

1-A word anagram

2-A rearrangement task

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53
Q

What are problems of inducing structure?

A
  • Identifying existing relationships in the presented problem
  • Arriving at the solution with the found out relationship
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54
Q

Examples for problems of inducing structure

A

1-Analogies

2-A number series

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55
Q

What are transformation problems?

A

Is the purpose of reaching the goal from an initial stage and progressing via a set of rules

56
Q

Examples for transformation problems

A

1-Water jars
2-Coin displacement
3-Tower of Hanoi

57
Q

What effects how we reach a solution?

A

The first impression

58
Q

How is the problem initially framed?

A

By the verbal/pictorial/numerical framing of the problem forms a first impression with the problem

59
Q

How do we deal with simple problems when producing solutions?

A

Simple problems- we may already have a direct solution which could be retrieved from long-term memory

60
Q

How do we deal with harder problems when producing solutions?

A

We need to generate solutions

61
Q

What is the most basic solution when producing solutions?

A

The most basic solution is trial-and-error

62
Q

Can the trial-and-error technique work for the solutions of simple problems?

A

They may work in simple problems where errors can be tolerable

63
Q

Can the trial-and-error technique work for the solutions of hard problems?

A

It does not work with problems requiring some level of complex thinking

64
Q

What are better solutions for producing solutions?

A

Heuristics since they are adapted for problem solving

65
Q

What are the three most frequently used heuristics?

A
  • Means-ends analysis
  • Backtracking
  • Forming sub goals
66
Q

How can we use the means-ends analysis?

A

By first examining the final goal and determining the best strategy for reaching that goal

67
Q

Means-ends analysis includes what?

A

Includes repeatedly testing current condition vs. desired condition

68
Q

What is the criticism for means-ends analysis when producing solutions?

A

Sometimes means-ends analysis can be counterproductive which means it can have the opposite of your desired effect

69
Q

What is required when the means-ends analysis is counterproductive?

A

You are required to take a step back and put distance between your desired goal and current condition

70
Q

What are sub goals when producing a solution?

A

Its dividing the problem into intermediate steps then solving these steps one by one

71
Q

We also use insight when

A

producing a solution

72
Q

What is insight?

A

Its a sudden awareness of the relationships among various elements that were seen to be unrelated previously

73
Q

What do we do when the solution is clear when evaluating solutions?

A

If the solution is clear- we will know it is the correct one

74
Q

What do we do when the solution is not clear when evaluating solutions?

A

If the solution is not clear- evaluation of possible solutions is more difficult

75
Q

Behavioral economics

A

How psychological factors influence financial decision making

76
Q

There are two common problems associated with our way of evaluating our solutions

A

1-Functional fixedness

2-Confirmation bias

77
Q

What is functional fixedness?

A

Its the tendency to think of an object only in ways it is most typically used

78
Q

Example for functional fixedness

A
  • A book is used for reading what else?

- A glass jar is for putting beans what else?

79
Q

What does functional fixedness prevent us from?

A

It prevents us from seeing beyond the constraints of the problem

80
Q

What is confirmation bias?

A

Its the tendency to prefer information that supports our initial hypothesis and to ignore contradicting ideas and information

81
Q

What do we use to evaluate our solutions?

A
  • Insight

- Creativity

82
Q

What is creativity?

A

Its the ability to generate original ideas or solve problems in novel ways

83
Q

Highly creative people show what type of thinking?

A

Divergent thinking

84
Q

What is divergent thinking?

A

It is thinking aimed towards generating multiple solutions that have unusual as well as valid responses to problems (out of the box thinking)

85
Q

What is convergent thinking?

A

It is thinking aimed at viewing the one and only solution to the problem that is based on earlier information and logical analysis

86
Q

Highly creative people

A
  • Show cognitive complexity
  • Are often interested in the abstract problems and possible have a wider rage of interests
  • Do not necessarily relate to a high IQ
87
Q

What is cognitive complexity?

A

Preferring detailed solutions to problems (more complex thought content)

88
Q

What is language?

A

Its the communication of information through symbols arranged according to systematic rules

89
Q

Language consists of two factors

A
  • Communication

- How we think about and understand the world

90
Q

What are the basic set of rules for language?

A

Grammar

91
Q

What is grammar?

A

Its the system of rules that determine how we can express our thoughts

92
Q

What are the 3 major components of grammar?

A

1-Phonology
2-Syntax
3-Semantics

93
Q

What is phonology?

A

Its the study of the smallest units of speech which are called phonemes

94
Q

What are phonemes?

A

Smallest sound units of speech (t, k, kr, a, e, i)

95
Q

Phonology consists of?

A
  • Phonemes

- Syllables

96
Q

What are syntax?

A

The ways in which words and phrases can be combined to form full sentences (rules that order words into a meaningful arrangement)

97
Q

Syntax consist of

A

Phrases

98
Q

What are phrases?

A

One or more words functioning as a unit in a sentence

99
Q

What are semantics?

A

The meanings of words and sentences

100
Q

Every word has a particular what?

A

Has a particular semantic structure

101
Q

Example for semantic structure

A

Boy, Man

similar (male) diff (age)

102
Q

What do semantic rules reflect?

A

They reflect subtle nuances in meaning

103
Q

What is babbling?

A

Meaningless speech like sounds made by toddlers

104
Q

How does a baby speak at 3 months?

A

Random phonemes un-related pitch and tone

105
Q

How does a baby speak at 12 months?

A

Specific phonemes pitch and tone related to language in their environment

106
Q

How do 12 months (1 year old) produce language?

A

Producing one word sentences

107
Q

Language comprehension precedes what?

A

Language production

108
Q

What is telegraphic speech?

A

Sentences in which only essential words are used

109
Q

How do 24 months- 30 months (2 years old) produce language?

A

50 words on average

110
Q

How do 30 months (2.5 years old) produce language?

A

Several hundred of words on average

111
Q

How do 36 months (3 years old) produce language?

A

Producing plurals, acquiring the use of past tense

112
Q

Overgeneralization

A

Children over apply a language rule and make a linguistic error

113
Q

Example for overgeneralization

A
  • She walked
  • He talked
  • She eated
  • He runned
114
Q

Example for telegraphic speech

A
  • Want food
  • Go walk
  • Dawning dog
115
Q

Learning theory approach

A

This view suggests that children first learn to speak by being rewarded for making sounds that approximate speech

116
Q

Language acquisition follows the principles of?

A

Of reinforcement and conditioning

117
Q

Example for the learning theory approach?

A

Child saying “mama”
Reward: hug, kiss, smile
Effect: repeating mama more likely

118
Q

What are the strengths of the learning theory approach?

A
  • Children become more proficient in language use if their parents speak to them frequently
  • Higher sophistication in the speech of caregivers, better use of vocabulary, better general intellectual abilities
119
Q

Less approximate…reward successful instance…more approximate

A

A process called shaping

120
Q

What are the weaknesses of the learning theory approach?

A

We reward them (by answering back) equally for

“why the dog wont eat?” and “why wont the dog eat”

121
Q

The nativist approach

A

This view suggests that human brain has an inherited neural system that lets us understand the structure of language in particular ways at certain periods in our lives

122
Q

All the worlds languages share a common underlying structure that is?

A

Pre-wired, biologically determined, and universal

123
Q

Chomskys universal grammar

A

An inherited neural system that helps us understand the structure of language

124
Q

Are we born with chomskys universal grammar?

A

Yes its an inborn capability (we are born with it)

125
Q

Chomskys universal grammar gives us what?

A

Gives us techniques and strategies to learn our native languages

126
Q

What are the strengths of chomskys universal grammar?

A
  • Human brains have a much more sophisticated neural structure than our ancestors and much more sophisticated communication
  • Human brain has specific sites for language production, language perception, speech initiation
127
Q

What are the weaknesses (criticism) for chomskys universal grammar?

A

Similarity with chimpanzees

128
Q

The Interactionist Approach

A

Which suggests that language development is produced through a combination of genetically determined tendencies and environmental circumstances that help teach language

129
Q

Language acquisition is both

A

Biological and social

130
Q

Biological language acquisition

A

Is the hardware where the brain is hardwired to enable language acquisition

131
Q

Social language acquisition

A

Is the software where environmental exposure to language allows us to understand its use, and produce it appropriately

132
Q

Linguistic- relatively hypothesis

A

Language shapes and may determine the way people perceive and understand the world

133
Q

Language provides us with categories how do we use them?

A

To understand others, and the events that happen in the world

134
Q

Language influences Thought

A
  • Russians can better distinguish shades of blue

- Icelandic language different words for types of wave

135
Q

Thought influences Language

A
  • Our mental processes shape the way we use language
  • We create expressions in language by referring to certain rules and we shape our own sentences by thinking on what we want to communicate
136
Q

Do animals use language?

A

They communicate in rudimentary (not fully developed) forms

137
Q

The language animals use lacks

A
  • Grammar
  • Complexity
  • Novel constructions

Psychology (7 decks)

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