Ch 9: Learning, Memory, and Development (Princeton Review)

Question 1

Instrumental conditioning studies show that _______-_______ schedules of reinforcement lead to the quickest increase in rate of desired responses

Answer 1

variable-ratio

from P.R. practice exam 2; also, see graph on p. 237

Question 2

(intermittent reinforcement schedules in conditioning)

Ratio schedules are based on the ______ of ________ of a desired behavior, while interval schedules are based on _____.

Answer 2

number of instances
time

p. 236

Question 3

Proactive interference occurs when….

Answer 3

…old information makes it hard to remember new information.

Question 4

Retroactive interference occurs when…

Answer 4

….new information impairs ability to retrieve old information.

Question 5

Encoding is the process of transferring _______ information into our memory system.

Answer 5

sensory

p. 244

Question 6

The tendency for people to remember the first items on a list upon immediate recall is known as…

Answer 6

….the primacy effect.

It is hypothesized that these are more easily recalled because they have had the most time to be encoded and transferred to long-term memory.

Question 7

The tendency for people to remember the last few items on a list upon immediate recall is known as…

Answer 7

…the recency effect.

It is thought that these are memorable because they may still be in the phonological loop and thus, more readily available.

p. 244

Question 8

What is the least effective way to improve retention and retrieval of information?

Answer 8

rote rehearsal

Khan Academy video

Question 9

Which memory aid system associates numbers with items that rhyme with or resemble the numbers?

Answer 9

The peg-word system

p. 109 of Kaplan book

Question 10

The ____ ______ hypothesis indicates that it is easier to remember words with associated images than either words or images alone.

Answer 10

dual coding

p. 245

Question 11

______ memory is brief photographic memory for visual information, which decays in a few tenths of a second.

Answer 11

Iconic

p. 245

Question 12

_______ memory is an ability found in some children to remember an image in vivid detail for several minutes after brief exposure.

Answer 12

Eidetic

p. 245

Question 13

______ memory is memory for sound, which lasts for about 3-4 seconds.

Answer 13

Echoic

p. 245

Question 14

Information in short-term memory is retained only for about __ _______, unless it is actively processed so that it can be transferred into long-term memory.

Long-term memory is information that is retained sometimes indefinitely; it is believed to have an infinite capacity!

Answer 14

20 seconds

p. 245

Question 15

Short-term memory, which is strongly correlated with the ___________, is where new information sought to be remembered resides temporarily and is then encoded to long-term memory or forgotten.

Working memory, which is strongly correlated with the ___________, is a storage bin to hold memories (both short-term and long-term) that are needed at a particular moment in order to process information or solve a problem.

Answer 15

hippocampus

prefrontal cortex

p. 245

Question 16

What type of memory refers to a conditioned association and knowledge of how to do something, and resides outside of our conscious awareness?

Answer 16

implicit or procedural memory

p. 246

Question 17

_______ or declarative memory involves being able to verbalize what is known.

Answer 17

Explicit

p. 246

Question 18

What phenomenon describes the fact that explicit memories that infants makes are largely not retained beyond about age 4?

Answer 18

infantile amnesia

p. 246

Question 19

What type of memory is autobiographical memory for information of personal importance?

Answer 19

episodic memory 
(These types of memories are stored with tags for context and time.  AAMC Practice Exam 3, Q 6)  

p. 246

Question 20

Old and new information do not always interfere with one another. What concept describes how knowing how to do one thing (like American football) may make it easier to do another thing (like playing rugby)?

Answer 20

positive transfer

p. 249

Question 21

Neuroscientists have had a difficult time in their search for a physical basis for memory.
More and more evidence indicates that what is important for memory and learning is the _______ – those sites where nerve cells communicate with each other through neurotransmitters.

Answer 21

synapses

p. 250

Question 22

False memories may also be referred to as ________ ______. These are pieces of false information inserted into episodic memories of events, which are consistent with the accurate information being recalled. These are regarded as being due to retrieval of both episodic and generic information that is consistent with that type of event.

Answer 22

intrusion errors

AAMC Practice Exam 3, Q 7

Question 23

Increasing emotional arousal is best explained as causing a __________ in the focus of attention.

Answer 23

restriction

AAMC Practice Exam 3, Q 9

Question 24

What term is used to describe (in operant conditioning), the process of reinforcing intermediate, proximal behaviors until a final, desired behavior is achieved?

Answer 24

shaping

(applies to teaching a dog how to shake)

p. 400