Ch 11: Sensation, Perception, and Cognition (Princeton Review)

Question 1

What is the absolute threshold?

Answer 1

the minimum sensory stimulus intensity required to activate a sensory receptor 50% of the time

p. 311

Question 2

What is the minimum noticeable difference between any two sensory stimuli, detected 50% of the time?

Answer 2

the just noticeable difference (or the difference threshold)

p. 312

Question 3

Weber’s law dictates that two stimuli must differ by a ________ __________ in order for their difference to be perceptible.

Answer 3

constant proportion

For humans, 2 objects must differ in weight by 2%, two lights must differ in intensity by 8%, and two tones must differ in frequency by 0.3%.

p. 312

Question 4

Besides the sensory stimuli itself, what else about our psychological state influences whether or not we will detect something?

Answer 4

alertness
expectation
prior experience
motivation

p. 312

Question 5

In signal detection theory, explain the four outcomes that are possible with a given sensory stimulus.

Answer 5

A hit means the signal was present and was detected.
A miss means the signal was present but was NOT detected.
A false alarm means the signal was NOT present but was falsely detected.
A correct rejection means the signal was NOT present and the person did not think it was.

p. 312

Question 6

A strong signal produces more ____ than _____, while a weak signal produces more _____ than _____.

Answer 6

hits than misses

misses than hits

(Khan Academy video)

Question 7

According to the gestalt principle of _________, when attempting to identify an object, we first identify its outline, which then allows us to figure out what the object is. Only after the whole emerges do we start to identify the parts that make up the whole.

Answer 7

emergence

p. 312

Question 8

Which gestalt principle describes the tendency of ambiguous images to pop back and forth, alternating different possible interpretations of the image?

Answer 8

the principle of multistability or multistable perception

p. 313

Question 9

The law of _________ suggests that things that are near each other seem to be grouped together.

The law of _________ suggests that things that are similar tend to appear grouped together.

Answer 9

proximity

similarity

p. 314

Question 10

Which law suggests that we perceive smooth, continuous lines and forms, rather than a disjoined one?

Answer 10

the law of continuity (or the law of good continuation)

p. 314

Question 11

The gestalt law of _______ predicts that we will perceive things as a complete and logical entity, because our brains will fill in the gaps in the missing information.

Answer 11

closure

p. 314

Question 12

What gestalt law predicts that objects moving in the same direction or moving in synchrony are perceived as a unit or group?

Answer 12

the law of common fate

p. 314

Question 13

The gestalt law of _____________ predicts that things that are joined or linked or grouped are perceived as connected.

Answer 13

connectedness

p. 314

Question 14

____-__ processing begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the complex integration of information occurring in the brain. We tend to use this approach when we have little or no prior experience with a stimulus.

Answer 14

bottom-up

p. 315

Question 15

____-__ processing occurs when the brain applies experience and expectations to interpret sensory information.

Answer 15

Top-down

(note that the brain uses both bottom-up and top-down processing simultaneously)

Question 16

Name and describe the two binocular cues.
These are most important for perceiving depth when objects are close to us in our visual field.

Answer 16

retinal disparity - the brain compares and integrates the images projected onto the two retinas in order to perceive distance

convergence - uses the extent to which the eyes turn inward when looking at an object in order to gauge its distance. The more inward strain, the closer the object.

p. 308

Question 17

The long list of monocular cues:
relative size
interposition
relative clarity
texture gradient
relative height
relative motion
linear perspective
light and shadow

Monocular cues are depth cues that depend on info available to either eye alone and are important for judging distances of objects that are far away since the retinal disparity is only slight. We must rely on a combination of these cues.

Question 18

If objects are assumed to be the same size, the one that casts the smaller image on the retina appears more distant.
Which monocular cue does this describe?

Answer 18

relative size

p. 309

Question 19

If one object blocks the view of another, we perceive it as closer.

Which monocular cue does this describe?

Answer 19

interposition

p. 309

Question 20

We perceive hazy objects as being more distant than sharp, clear objects.
Which monocular cue does this describe?

Answer 20

relative clarity

p. 309

Question 21

Change from a coarse, distinct texture to a fine, indistinct texture indicates increasing distance. (Example of red poppies in a field.)
Which monocular cue does this describe?

Answer 21

texture gradient

p. 310

Question 22

We perceive objects that are higher in the visual field as farther away.
Which monocular cue does this describe?

Answer 22

relative height

p. 310

Question 23

As we move, stable objects appear to move as well. Objects that are near to us appear to move faster than objects that are farther away.
Which monocular cue does this describe?

Answer 23

relative motion (aka motion parallax)

p. 310

Question 24

Parallel lines appear to converge as distance increases. The greater the convergence, the greater the perceived distance. (example of railroad tracks)
Which monocular cue does this describe?

Answer 24

linear perspective

p. 310

Question 25

Closer objects reflect more light than distance objects. The dimmer of two identical objects will seem farther away.
Which monocular cue does this describe?

Answer 25

light and shadow

p. 311

Question 26

In humans, once a hair cell in the ear dies, it will never regrow. The hair cells that detect higher frequency sounds are the smallest and the most ______ _______. This explains why elderly people have a loss of sensitivity to high-pitched sounds.

Answer 26

easily damaged

p. 311

Question 27

In order to process vast amounts of visual information very quickly and effectively, our brains employ ________ ___________

Answer 27

parallel processing
(note: also utilized for other stimuli as well)

p. 307

Question 28

The human brain dedicates approximately __% of the cortex to processing visual information, while only _% is devoted to processing touch information, and a mere _% processes auditory information.

Answer 28

30%
8%
3%

p. 307

Question 29

What allows us to perceive depth and distance?

Answer 29

binocular and monocular cues

Question 30

What type of receptor are Pacinian corpuscles, where are they found, and what stimulus activates them?

Answer 30

mechanoreceptors found in the skin, activated by pressure

p. 307

Question 31

What type of receptor are taste cells, where are they found, and what stimulus activates them?

Answer 31

chemoreceptors
found on taste buds on the tongue
food chemicals

p. 307

Question 32

What type of receptor are rods and cones, where are they found, and what stimulus activates them?

Answer 32

electromagnetic receptors
retina
light

p. 307

Question 33

What type of receptor are auditory hair cells, where are they found, and what stimulus activates them?

Answer 33

mechanoreceptors
organ of Corti
vibration

p. 307

Question 34

The Ruffini cylinders and the Merkel receptors fire to _________ ________.

Answer 34

constant pressure

(Khan academy practice passages)

Question 35

Both the ________ corpuscle and the ________ corpuscle fire when pressure is first applied and again when pressure is released.

Answer 35

Meissner
Pacinian

Question 36

Adaptation requires a _________ stimulus.

Answer 36

constant

(Khan Academy practice passage)

Question 37

What is kinesthesia?

Answer 37

the sense of movement

Question 38

What does the Law of Pragnanz say?

Answer 38

The law of prägnanz is sometimes referred to as the law of good figure or the law of simplicity. This law holds that when you’re presented with a set of ambiguous or complex objects, your brain will make them appear as simple as possible.

Question 39

What otolithic organs sense changes in position and acceleration?

Answer 39

the utricle and saccule

Question 40

What structure do humans lack that nocturnal animals have which allows them to see at night?

Answer 40

a tapetum lucidum

Question 41

Weber’s law states that the K value is calculated by dividing the change in stimulus by the initial stimulus value. This equation written out is:

Answer 41

ΔI/ I = K

Question 42

The structures of the eye first form an image on the ______, which detects light and converts the stimuli into ______ ___________ to send to the brain.

Answer 42

retina

action potentials

p. 302

Question 43

Light enters the eye by passing through the cornea, the clear portion of the front of the eye. Light is refracted (bent) as it passes through the cornea which is highly curved and acts like a lens. Why is the cornea able to do this?

Answer 43

Because the refractive index of the cornea is higher than that of air.

p. 302

Question 44

The cornea is continuous at its borders with the ______, the white of the eye. Beneath this is a layer called the _______.

Answer 44

sclera

choroid

p. 302

Question 45

Why is the choroid able to absorb excess light within the eye?

Answer 45

Because it contains darkly-pigmented cells.

p. 302

Question 46

What structure is just inside the cornea and what does it contain?

Answer 46

the anterior chamber contains aqueous humor

p. 302

Question 47

At the back of the anterior chamber is a ________ called the iris with an opening called the pupil.

Answer 47

membrane

p. 302

Question 48

Just behind the iris is the ________ _______, also containing aqueous humor. Sitting in the part back of this structure is the _____.

Answer 48

posterior chamber

lens

p. 302

Question 49

The curvature of the lens (and thus its refractive power) is varied by the ______ muscle.

Answer 49

ciliary

p. 302

Question 50

Light passes through the vitreous chamber en route from the lens to the retina. This chamber contains a thick, jelly like fluid called ________ _____. The retina is located at the back of the eye.

Answer 50

vitreous humor

(not to be confused with aqueous humor)

p. 302

Question 51

What are the only examples of electromagnetic receptors in the human body?

These receptors synapse with nerve cells called _______ _____.

Answer 51

rod and cone cells of the retina (aka photoreceptors)

bipolar cells (the name implies they have only 1 axon and 1 dendrite)

p. 297

Question 52

The bipolar cells in turn synapse with ________ _____, whose axons comprise the optic nerve, which travels from each eye toward the occipital lobe of the. brain where complex analysis of a visual image occurs.

Answer 52

ganglion cells

p. 302

Question 53

Stimulus intensity is coded by….

Answer 53

….the frequency of action potentials.

p. 298

Question 54

What structure of the eye is clear and bends light as it passes through?

Answer 54

cornea

Question 55

If the cornea “acts as a lens”, what is the role of the lens?

Answer 55

to fine-tune the angle of incoming light, so that the beams are perfectly focused upon the retina

p. 302

Question 56

Which type of cell is concentrated in the fovea?

Answer 56

cones (rods are NOT found in the fovea, but are found in the periphery of the eye)

Question 57

Although rods are 1,000x more sensitive to light than are cones, rods are NOT sensitive to detail and instead are generally involved in peripheral vision in normal or bright light. Due to their sensitivity to photons, rods do most, if not all, of their photoreception in dark situations

Answer 57

(From Princeton Review, practice Exam 2; Khan Academy video: photoreceptors)

Question 58

Red cone cells make up 60% of the cone cells, green make up 30%, and blue makes up only __%.

Answer 58

10%

(Khan Academy video: Photoreceptors)

Question 59

Which type of cell (rods or cones) has a longer “recovery time”?

Answer 59

rods

(e.g. it takes your eyes a longer time to adjust between light and dark environments)

Question 60

All rods contain only a single pigment type called __________.

Answer 60

rhodopsin

Question 61

In the dark, when rods and cones are resting, retinal has several trans double bonds and one cis double bond. In this conformation, retinal and its associated opsin keep a sodium channel open. The cell remains __________. Upon absorbing a photon of light, retinal is converted to the all-trans form. This triggers a series of reactions that ultimately closes the sodium channel, and the cell hyperpolarizes.

Answer 61

depolarized

p. 304

Question 62

What is the term for normal vision?

Answer 62

emmetropia

p. 304

Question 63

Too much curvature of the cornea or lens causes light to be bent too much, which focuses light in front of the retina. This is called….

Answer 63

….myopia (nearsightedness).

p. 304

Question 64

What type of lens corrects myopia?

Answer 64

a concave (diverging) lens

Question 65

Too little curvature of the cornea or lens causes light to be bent too little, which focuses light behind the retina. This is called….

Answer 65

hyperopia (farsightedness)

Question 65

Too little curvature of the cornea or lens causes light to be bent too little, which focuses light behind the retina. This is called….

Answer 65

hyperopia (farsightedness)

Question 66

What type of lens corrects hyperopia?

Answer 66

a convex (converging) lens would be prescribed

Question 67

Before light stimulates a rod cell, what conformation is present in rhodopsin?

Answer 67

11-cis-retinal; after light activation it is changed to an all-trans retinal.

Question 68

Name the structures involved in going from SOUND to HEARING.

Answer 68

sound wave transmitted through air → auricle → external auditory canal → tympanic membrane → malleus → incus → stapes → oval window → perilymph → endolymph → basilar membrane → auditory hair cells → tectorial membrane → neurotransmitters stimulate bipolar auditory neurons → brain → perception

p. 301

Question 69

Which brain waves are associated with deep sleep?

What is their relative amplitude and frequency?

Answer 69

delta waves are associated with deep sleep.

Remember D for Delta and Deep. These are HIGH amplitude LOW frequency waves (0.5 - 3 Hz), which is why deep sleep is also called slow wave sleep.

p. 325

Question 70

What type of brain waves are associated with alert wakefulness?

Answer 70

Beta waves

(remember, you beta be awake!) These high frequency (12.5-30 Hz) and have even lower amplitudes than alpha waves

p. 324

Question 71

What type of brain waves are associated with relaxed wakefulness or drowsiness?

Answer 71

alpha waves

These are low amplitude, and high frequency (8-12 Hz)

p. 324

Question 72

What type of brain waves are associated with stage 1 (non-REM) sleep?

Answer 72

theta waves; these are of intermediate frequency (3-7 Hz)

p. 324

Question 73

Polysomnography is a multimodal technique to measure physiological processes during sleep. It includes….

Answer 73

….EEG (electroencephalogram), EMG (electromyogram), EOG (electrooculogram), and other physiological indicators of sleep

p. 324

Question 74

Stage 2 sleep is denoted by a change to two distinct patterns on the EEG. The person will still have theta waves, these are intermixed with two patterns: _______ and _____ ________. The former is a single wave, of a half second duration and is large and slow. The latter is a burst of waves.

Answer 74

K-complexes and sleep spindles

p. 325

Question 75

Which stage of sleep is the “final” stage of sleep, but not the deepest level of sleep?

Answer 75

REM sleep

This is also called “paradoxical sleep” bc although the person physiologically appears to be awake, their muscle movement does not corroborate, as the individual is nearly paralyzed except for sudden bursts or twitches. This is also when dreams generally occur.

p. 325

Question 76

The average sleep cycle is about 90 minutes to go through stages 1, 2, 3, 4, and then REM. Periods of REM sleep are ________ early in the night and get longer as the night progresses. Deep sleep periods (stages 3 and 4) are _______ early in the night and less frequent as the night progresses.

Answer 76

shortest

longest

p. 326

Question 77

Core body temperature fluctuates between about 96.8 and 100.4 F over 24 hours. This is regulated by the hypothalamus. When does the average adult experience their lowest core body temperature?

Answer 77

About two hours before waking time in the morning

p. 327

Question 78

Freud believed that the plot lines of dreams, or _______ content, were symbolic versions of underlying _____ content, unconscious drives and wishes that are difficult to express.

Answer 78

manifest

latent

p. 327

Question 79

What does the activation-synthesis theory suggest?

Answer 79

That dreams are merely byproducts of brain activation during REM sleep.

p. 327

Question 80

What types of parasomnias (abnormal sleeping behaviors) are associated with stage 3 (slow wave sleep)?

Answer 80

Somnambulism (sleepwalking)

Night terrors

Somniloquy (sleeptalking)

p. 328

Question 81

During what sleep stage does bruxism usually occur?

Answer 81

Can occur during consciousness or any stage of sleep.

(from MCAT Self-Prep end-of-lesson quiz)

Question 82

Which tastes are detected by G-protein-coupled receptors?

Answer 82

Remember SWUB:

sweet, umami, and bitter

Question 83

In Broadbent’s Filter Model of Selective Attention, inputs from the environment first enter a sensory buffer. The selective filter is applied and, this is based on the ________ _________ of the sensory input.

Answer 83

physical properties

p. 316

Question 84

What phenomenon occurs when information of personal importance from previously unattended channels catches your attention?

Answer 84

the cocktail party effect

(Note: this observation cannot be well accounting for by the filter model of attention.)

p. 317

Question 85

What model tries to account for the cocktail party effect by stating that rather than a filter, the mind has an attenuator which “turns down” the volume of the unattended sensory input?

Answer 85

Anne Treisman’s Attenuation Model

p. 317

Question 86

The idea of _________ _______ says that the more something is primed, the more it will be picked up despite distractions.

Answer 86

selective priming

p. 317

Question 87

In the spotlight model (pertaining to visual attention), it is important to note that the beam of light describes the movement of attention, not the eyes. Shifts in attention actually _______ the corresponding eye movements.

Answer 87

precede

p. 317

Question 88

One problem with visual processing is called the _______ _______ – the problem of how all these different aspects are assembled together and related to a single object, rather than something else in the visual field.

Answer 88

binding problem

p. 318

Question 89

What factors determine performance of multi-tasking?

Answer 89

task similarity, task difficulty, and task practice

(task similarity example of writing a paper while talking on a radio program; they interfere bc of the task similarity)

p. 318

Question 90

What ages roughly correspond to the preoperational stage?

Answer 90

Ages 2 to 7

Question 91

The preoperational stage corresponds to a lack of _______ reasoning, and _____________, meaning they do not understand that other people have different perspectives.

Answer 91

logical

egocentrism

p. 320