ch 8- memory Flashcards
what 3 activities are involved with memory?
- encoding= getting info into memory
- storage= retaining memories
- retrieval= recapturing memories when you need them
memory
recalling past events and past learning
information-processing model
view of memory suggesting that information moves among three memory stores during encoding, storage, and retrieval.
sensory memory
memory involving a detailed, brief sensory image or sound retained for a brief period of time.
-“quick copy” of info in our environment
working memory
metaphor: info on an open document or website. lost if you don’t save it
long-term memory
“hard drive”. infinite info stored forever until “deleted”
parallel distributed-processing (PDP) (or connectionist) model theory of memory
information is represented in the brain as a pattern of activation across entire neural networks
automatic processing
encoding of information with little conscious awareness or effort
effortful processing
encoding of information through careful attention and conscious effort
to encode info you must
be paying attention
differences between automatic and effortful processing
effortful processing is usually disrupted when a person has to pay attention to other stimuli
sensory memory
detailed, brief sensory image or sound retained for a short period of time
working memory
short-term memory. can hold 5 to 9 items at once
ex. remembering a phone number to type in to your phone
how do we ensure that sensory memory gets encoded into working memory?
rehearsal
rehearsal
consciously repeating information to encode it into working memory
spaced practice effect
“rehearsal” spaced out over a period of time
ex. studying in small periods for a month leading up to the exam
semantic code
represented based on MEANING of information
(linking new info to info we have already memorized)
to encode verbal info into long term memory we use
semantic code
to encode non-verbal info into long term memory
phonological or visual code
phonological code
visual memory. looking at a scene/image. remembering life events
mnemonic devices
technique used to add meaning to information in order to remember it
organization
we organize information into categories in order to remember it more easily
schemas
knowledge bases that we develop from prior exposure to similar situations
memory span
maximum number of items that can be recalled in the correct order
chunking
grouping bits of information together to increase ability to remember
“1980 03 12” instead of “19800312”
explicit memory
memories that you can consciously bring to mind
ex. your middle name
implicit memory
memory that a person is not consciously aware of
(skills, habits etc.)
explicit memory categories
- semantic memory= facts and knowledge
- episodic memory= personal experiences
implicit memory categories
- procedural memory (motor skills and habits such as riding a bike)
- classically conditioned memory (ex. conditioned responses to stimuli such as phobias)
- priming= activated memories based on previous events (ex. heightened fear after watching a horror movie)
retrieval cues
words, sights or other stimuli that remind us of information we need to retrieve from our memory
priming
activating one piece of information, which then leads to the activation of another piece, and then the activation of a memory
recognition tasks
memory tasks in which people are asked to identify if that have or have not seen a particular item before
recall tasks
memory tasks in which people are asked to produce information using little/no retrieval cues
context effecct
the original location where you first learned a concept or idea, rich with retrieval cues that will make it more likely you will be able to recall that information later if you are in that same location or context
ex. lists learned underwater were best recalled underwater, and that lists learned on land were best retrieved on land
encoding specificity principle
memory retrieval is more efficient when the information available at retrieval is similar to the information available at the time of encoding
state-dependent memory
memory retrieval facilitated by being in the same state of mind in which you encoded the memory in the first place
flashbulb memories
tailed and near-permanent memories of an emotionally significant event, or of the circumstances surrounding the moment we learned about the event
ex. during 9/11 most people could remember where they were
decay theory
theory of forgetting, suggesting that memories fade over time due to neglect or failure to access over long periods of time
interference theory
theory that forgetting is influenced by what happens to people before or after they take information in
-retroactive
-proactive
retroactive interference
(backward acting)
new info interferes with old info
ex. every time you learn a new fish name you forget the name of a student in class
proactive interference
(forward acting)
old info interferes w new info
ex. refer to new boyfriend using old boyfriend’s name
interference only occurs when information
conflicts
repression
process in which we unconsciously prevent some traumatic events from entering our awareness so that we do not have to experience the anxiety or blows to our self-concept that the memories would bring
source misattribution
remembering information, but not the source it came from; can lead to remembering information from unreliable sources as true
prefrontal cortex
brain structure located just behind the forehead and implicated in working memory
hippocampus
converts explicit memories into long term memory
memory consolidation
process by which memories stabilize in the brain
potentiation
synchronous networks of cells firing together
long-term potentiation (LTP)
a phenomenon where repeated stimulation of certain nerve cells in the brain greatly increases the likelihood that the cells will respond strongly to future stimulation
prospective memory
ability to remember content in the future
retrospective memory
ability to remember content from the past
amnestic disorders
organic disorders in which memory loss is the primary symptom
retrograde amnesia
inability to remember things that occurred before an organic event
anterograde amnesia
ongoing inability to form new memories after an amnesia-inducing event
dementia
severe memory problems combined with losses in at least one other cognitive function, such as abstract thinking or language
Alzheimer’s disease
most common form of dementia, usually beginning with mild memory problems, lapses of attention, and problems in language, and progressing to difficulty with even simple tasks and recall of long-held memories
neurofibrillary tangles
twisted protein fibres found within the cells of the hippocampus and certain other brain areas
senile plaques
sphere-shaped deposits of a protein known as beta-amyloid that form in the spaces between cells in the hippocampus, cerebral cortex, and certain other brain regions, as well as in some nearby blood vessels
transfer/context dependent processing
memory transfers from one situation to another when the context of the encoding situations match
