ch 3: analyzing arguments Flashcards
crazed rhetoric: contrary to what arguments are meant to be, crazed rhetoric lacks …, …, and … for one’s claims
sufficient evidence; support; credibility
arguments should be a process incorporating … in which … is sought
reason; common ground
arguments are discussions focused on the purpose of …, which lead from a .. to a …
persuading; claim; conclusion
rogerian arguments: emphasizes the significance of … and …., advocates the notion that it is imperative to have a complete understanding of the …
concession; refutation; counterargument
the goal of a rogerian argument is not to … your opponents or to dismantle their viewpoints but rahter to reach a …
destroy; satisfactory conclusion
a claim is the component of an argument that acts as a
thesis statement
the claim should be
debatable
the claim should be a complete
sentence
a strong claim is the result of … as well as deliberation over the information found through the …
extensive, thorough research; research
three types of claims:
claims of fact, claims of value, claims of policy
these claims guide entire arguments, of which there are 3:
arguments of fact, arguments of value, arguments of policy
claims of fact assert that something is
true/not true
arguments of fact are dependent on the information that is considered to be
factual
whenever you are evaluating or writing an argument of fact, it’s important to approach your subject with
healthy skepticism
claims of value: most common type of claim; argues about the … of something
worth
claims of value must be
debatable
claims of value may incorporate
opinions
in order to create an argument based on a claim of value, one must have specific standards, meaning the factors that make the object being discussed have the
value that the author assigns it
the speaker must then demonstrate the manner in which these standards
apply to the subject
claims of policy propose
change
argument of policy begins with a j
claim of fact (identifies problem)
(argument of policy) claim of fact is followed by a
claim of value (explains nature of problem)
(argument of policy) the claim of value is then followed by a
claim of policy (suggests change)
(argument of policy) while an argument of policy usually calls for some direct action to take plce, it may be a recommendation for a change in
attitude or viewpoint
types of thesis statements:
closed theiss, open thesis, counterargument theiss
closed thesis:
main idea + major points
closed theses are more efective for shorter essays in that it limits teh
amount of points that can be made
open theses are more effective for
lengthy essays
open theses don’t list the author’s points, but rather, it imply states the
main idea
counterargument thesis summarizes a counterargument that is followed by the
speaker’s belief
a counterargument thesis instantaneously makes the argument appear
strong and logical
the conterargument thesis allows one to use … and … technique more effectively
concession; refutation
a counterargument thesis does not have to demonstrate complete
support or rejection
rhetorical choices: the …, …, and … of evidence
amount; type; presentation
amount, type and presentation of evidence is dependent on what the … and … is
purpose; audience
one must consider whether …. or .. evidence would be more effective in persuading audience
formal/ informal
relevant evidence: relates tot eh
argument
the relationship beween relevant evidence and argument is typically
expressed
accurate evidence: does not … the information supplied by the evidence being used
misinterpret/misrepresent
to have accurate evidence: utilize …, consider…, consider what type of evidence will …
credible sources; bias; appeal to your audience
sufficient evidence: there should be enough evidence so that the thesis will be
completely supported
logical fallacies: potential … or … in an argument
vulnerabilities; weaknesses
logical fallacies can occur when the relationship between the argument and the evidence is not
adequately explained
occassionally, fallacies are deliberately employed to
manipulate the audience
red herring: fallacy in which the speaker introduces information that is … to a….
irrelevant to the argument; avoid the topic that should be discussed
ad hominem fallacy: a red herring, ad hominem means “…”; argues for/against the … instead of the issue being discused
to the man; character of a person
if the speaker questions one’s character, and this questioning of character is relevant to the argument, than this would not be an
ad hominem
when using analogies, determine if the similarities are
larger in number than the dissimilarites
faulty analogies can be used to appeal to
pathos
hasty generalization: the evidence that is used does not completely
support the argument
circular reasoning: does not legitimately provide …, but rather, it
evidence; restates the claim
first-hand eidence: something that you know
to be true
personal experience can be used to
appeal to pathos
personal experience makes the issue that is being discussed more
human
personal experience is more effective in the
intro/conclusion
anecdotes can also be used to
appeal to pathos
current events are another type of …, but one must be aware of ..
first-hand evidence; bias
second-hand evidence is found through
research
some types of second-hand evidence:
factual/historical information, expert opinion, statistics
second-hand evidence appeals to
logos
historical information can be used to establish a
context, as well as ethos
historical information appeals to ethos in that it illustrates that the speaker has conducted
research
it is essential that historical information is
accurately presented
historical information can be used in comparisons between
past and modern times
post hoc ergo propter hoc: means “….”; refutes the notion that something has caused another event due to the fact that it …
after which therefore because of which; occurred earlier
expert i someone who has … on a topic or whos job experience gives him/her specialized …
published research; knowledge
it’s essential that the expert opinion that you use will be credible to the
audience
ppeal to false authority: cites someone that is widely known but is essentially … to the argument in that said person lacks … on the issue being argued
irrelevant; expertise
quantitative evidence is numerical information:
statistics, surveys, polls, censuses
bandwagon appeal (ad populum fallacy): appeals to the fact that the issue at hand is …; essentially “everybody’s doing it, so it must be a …”
common practice; good thing to do”
ways to structure an argument involve:
classical oration, inductiona nd deduction; toulmin model
5 part structure for speeches:
introduction (exordium), narration (narratio), confirmation (confirmatio), refutation (refutatio), conclusion (peroratio)
(structure for speeches) introduction: introuces the …, exordium means “…”, grabs the reader’s … and establishes …
subject; beginning a web; attention; ethos
(structure for speeches) narration: incorporates … and background …; typically appeals to pathos due to the fact that the speaker tries to evoke an emotional response about the …
facts; infromation; importance of the issue being discussed
confirmation: provides … and appeals to …
evidence; logos
refutation: counterargument, appeals to
logos
conclusion: appeals to … and … and ties all the …
pathos; ethos; claims made together
induction: an argument that is structured so that it moves from
specific information to a generalization
to use induction: gather …, …, and …
evidence; infer; conclude
inductive arguments are not right/wrong, they are either …
strong/weak
inductive arguments do nto lead to …, only to …
certainties; probabilities
contrary to induction, deductions begin with a generalization which is applied to …. so that a … can be formed
specific information; conclusion
generalization: … premise
major
specifics: … premise
minor
deductive reasoning→
syllogism
syllogism: structure that utilizes …. and … to form a conclusion
major; minor premises
deductive reasoning can be to illustrate the … in …
irrationality; stereotypes
the toulmin model is an effective tool in uncovering the
assumptions that underlie arguments
6 eleents of the Toulmin model:
claim, evidence, warrant (assumption), backing, qualifier, reservation
a warrant expresses the assumption necessarily shared by the
speaker and the audience
backing: additional
evidence
qualifier: words like …, …, …., …, ….; reduces the … of an argument
usually, probably, maybe, in most cases, most likely; absoluteness
reservation: describes conditions that are brought about by the
qualifier
rebuttal
objections
toulmin analsis:
because (evidence), therefore (claim), since (assumption), on account of (backing), unless (reservation)
the toulmin model illustrates the relationship between the
assumptions, claim, and evidence
if the audience doesn’t gree with the speaker’s assumptions, the speaker must then develop anothe claim which should be supported by
further evidence
types of visual arguments:
advertisements, political cartoons, photos, bumper stickers, t-shirts, hats, web pages, art billboards
(checklist for visual texts) what is the …, …, and … of the visual? does the seaker have any … that are significant in terms of the text?
origin, audience, speaker; affiliations
(checklist for visual texts) what is …about the text and what is your …?
notibceable; first impression
(checklist for visual texts) what is the … and …?
topic; claim
(checklist for visual texts) does the text tell a … and what is the …?
story; purpose
(checklist for visual texts) hat emotions does it evoke and how does it artistically…?
appeal to emotions
(checklist for visual texts) are the figures …, …, or … and what effect does this have?
realistic; caricatures; distorted
(checklist for visual texts) are there any … and what are their effects?
visual allusions
(checklist for visual texts) what … are represented?
cultural valus
(checklist for visual texts) what … does it make?
claim
while photographs are real, they are also artificial in that the photographer controlss what the
photo captures
begging the question: a fallacy in which a claim is based on … or … that is in …. It begs a question whether the …
evidence; support; doubt; support itself is sound
either/or (false dilemma): a fallacy in which the speaker presents two
extreme options as the only possibl echoices
straw man: a fallacy that occurs when a speaker chooses a deliberately … or .. example in order to … and … an idea
poor; oversimplified; ridicule; refute
