Ch 2. Theories of development Flashcards
Accommodation
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
A cognitive process in which we adjust our understanding of our surroundings based on new experiences
This term is often used in the context of cognitive development.
Adaptive behavior
Thoughts, feelings, and actions that allow children to develop social, emotional, and behavioral competence over time and meet the changing demands of the environment
Allele
A variant of a gene or DNA segment that is inherited or arises by mutation
Alleles can influence traits and characteristics.
Assimilation
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
A cognitive process in which we take in information from our experiences and use this information to build models to understand our surroundings
Attachment
The affective bond between caregiver and child that serves to protect and reassure the child in times of danger or uncertainty
Attachment is crucial for emotional development.
Basal ganglia
Brain regions located under the cortex; they help to control movement, filter incoming information, relay information to other regions, and regulate attention and emotions
Behavioral epigenetics
A scientific field of study that examines the ways environmental experiences can affect genetic expression and be passed from one generation to the next
Behavioral genetics
An area of scientific study that examines the relationship between genes and behavior; chiefly interested in determining the heritability of traits or mental health problems
Brain stem
An evolutionarily old region of the brain responsible for many basic life-sustaining functions; consists of the medulla, pons, and midbrain
Cerebellum
A brain region located posteriorly (in the back); chiefly responsible for balance and coordination
Cerebral cortex
The outermost layer of the brain, consisting of the frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes
Classical conditioning
A type of learning in which two stimuli are paired together in time, and a previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit an automatic, unconditioned response
Cognitive development
Changes in a person’s capacity for perception, thought, language, and problem-solving
Concordance
In the field of behavioral genetics, the probability that two people will both have a certain characteristic or disorder given that one has the characteristic
Developmental pathways
Possible courses or trajectories of children’s behavioral, cognitive, or social–emotional development over time, ranging from adaptation to maladaptation
Developmental psychopathology
A multidisciplinary approach to studying adaptive and maladaptive development across the lifespan, shaped by the complex interaction of biological, psychological, and social–cultural factors over time
Developmental tasks
Behavioral, cognitive, or social–emotional challenges that children face at each age or developmental level
Diathesis–stress model
A broad theory that posits that a child will exhibit a disorder when she has both (1) an underlying genetic risk for the disorder and (2) an environmental experience or life event that triggers its onset
Ecological systems theory
A theory of child development that consists of concentric nested systems: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, chronosystem
Emotional development
The emergence and refinement of a person’s experience, expression, understanding, and regulation of feelings
Emotion regulation
The processes that people use to recognize, label, and control our feelings and our expression of these feelings
Equifinality
The phenomenon in which children with different developmental histories show a similar developmental outcome
Equilibration
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
A state of balance between our experiences and our cognitive understanding of our surroundings
Gene
Thousands of nucleotides that form part of a chromosome; they are transferred from parent to offspring and influence the characteristics of those offspring
Gene–environment correlation
The idea that our environments are partially influenced by our genotypes; includes passive, evocative, and active types
Genotype
The genetic code that we inherit from our parents
Goodness-of-fit
The compatibility of a child’s temperament with the features of his or her environment, especially parenting behavior
Heterotypic continuity
The phenomenon in which overt symptoms change over time, but their underlying pattern remains the same
Histones
Proteins that provide structural support for chromosomes and regulate the expression of genes
Homotypic continuity
The phenomenon in which disorders persist over time relatively unchanged
Internal working model
A mental representation of a caregiver that helps an individual cope with psychosocial stress
Learning theory
A broad explanation for the causes of behavior relying on classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and modeling
Limbic system
Located deep within the brain, responsible for emotional processing and memory; consists of the amygdala, hippocampus, and several other structures
Maladaptive behaviors
Thoughts, feelings, and actions that interfere with children’s social, emotional, and behavioral competence
Metacognition
Awareness and understanding of one’s own thought processes
Molecular genetics
An area of scientific study that examines the relationship between specific genes and the presence or absence of characteristics and disorders
Multifinality
The phenomenon in which children with similar early experiences show different social, emotional, and behavioral outcomes
Neural plasticity
The brain’s capacity to change its structure or functioning in response to environmental experience
Neurons
Nerve cells that consist of dendrites, a cell body, an axon, and terminal endings; relay information using electrical signals
Neurotransmitters
Chemical messengers that allow neurons to communicate with each other; examples include dopamine and serotonin
Nonshared environmental factors
Experiences that differ between siblings, such as different age, gender, friends, sports, or hobbies
Operant conditioning
A type of learning in which an action is associated with an environmental consequence, either reinforcement or punishment
Parenting types
A four-part classification of parenting behavior based on its degree of responsiveness and demandingness: authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, uninvolved
Phenotype
The observable expression of our genetic endowment
Probabilistic epigenesis
A principle of developmental psychopathology; refers to the interaction of genetic, biological, and social–cultural factors over time
Protective factors
Influences that buffer the negative effects of risks on children’s development and promote adaptive functioning
Punishment
In operant conditioning, an environmental consequence that decreases the likelihood of future behavior
Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, an environmental consequence that increases the likelihood of future behavior
Resilience
The tendency of some children to develop social, emotional, and behavioral competence despite the presence of multiple risk factors
Risk factors
Influences on development that interfere with the acquisition of competencies or compromise children’s ability to adapt to their environments
Scaffolding
Assistance provided to the child by a more knowledgeable other person to help the child successfully complete a task
Shared environmental factors
Environmental experiences common to siblings, such as same parents, house, or school
Social cognition
A person’s capacity to think about social situations and to perceive, interpret, and solve interpersonal problems
Social learning theory
The idea that people learn from one another through observation, imitation, and modeling
Strange situation
A laboratory-based test of infant–caregiver attachment used to determine attachment security
Synaptogenesis
An increase in the number of neurons and connections between neurons that arises from maturation and experience
Temperament
An inborn tendency to organize and react to behavior in response to environmental stimuli
Zone of proximal development
In Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development, the difference in knowledge and skills that a child can demonstrate independently versus with the help of another person
