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Anatomy II > Ch. 18 The Endocrine System > Flashcards

Ch. 18 The Endocrine System Flashcards

1
Q

What two systems coordinate the functions of all body systems?

A

the nervous and endocrine systems

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1
Q

The nervous system controls body actions through…

A

nerve impulses

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2
Q

The endocrine system controls body activities by…

A

releasing mediator molecules called hormones

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3
Q

Endocrinology

A

science concerned with the structure and function of the endocrine glands and the diagnosis and treatment of endocrine disorders

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4
Q

True or False: parts of the nervous system stimulate or inhibit the release of hormones

A

true

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5
Q

Hormones may promote or inhibit the generation of _____ _______

A

nerve impulses

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6
Q

Two kinds of glands in the body

A

exocrine and endocrine

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7
Q

Exocrine glands

A

secrete their products into ducts and the ducts carry the secretions to the target site

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8
Q

Endocrine glands

A

secrete their products (hormones) into the interstitial fluid surrounding the secretory cells from which they diffuse into capillaries to be carried away by blood

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9
Q

Endocrine glands include:

A

-pituitary
-thyroid
-parathyroid
-adrenal
-pineal

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10
Q

When do hormones have powerful effects?

A

when present in very low concentrations

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11
Q

Although hormones travel in blood throughout the body, what do they only affect?

A

specific target cells

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12
Q

What do target cells have for hormones to bind to?

A

specific protein or glycoprotein receptors

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13
Q

Down-regulation

A

the decrease in the number of receptors when a hormone is present in excess

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14
Q

Up-regulation

A

an increase in the number of receptors when a hormone is deficient

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15
Q

Synthetic hormones

A

available as drugs that block the receptors for particular naturally occurring hormones

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16
Q

Circulating hormones or endocrines

A

hormones that travel in blood and act on distant target cells

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17
Q

Local hormones

A

hormones that act locally without first entering the bloodstream

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18
Q

Paracrines

A

those that act on neighboring cells

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19
Q

Autocrines

A

those that act on the same cell that secreted them

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20
Q

Lipid-soluble hormones

A

steroids, thyroid hormones, and nitric oxide, which acts as local hormone

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21
Q

Water-soluble hormones

A

the amines; peptides, proteins, and glycoproteins; and eicosanoids

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22
Q

How do water-soluble hormones circulate?

A

in the plasma in a free, unattached form

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23
Q

How do lipid-soluble hormones bind?

A

to transport proteins to be carried in blood

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24
Q

What do transport proteins do?

A

they improve the transportability of lipid-soluble hormones by making them temporarily water-soluble, retard passage of the small hormone molecules through the kidney filter thus slowing the rate of hormone loss in urine, and provide a ready reserve of hormone already present in blood

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25
Q

What do digestive enzymes destroy?

A

protein and peptide hormones such as insulin

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26
Q

What determines the response to a hormone?

A

it depends on both the hormone and target cell

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27
Q

Action of lipid-soluble hormone

A
  1. Lipid-soluble hormones bind to and activate receptors within cells
  2. The activated receptors then alter gene expression which results in the formation of new proteins
  3. The new proteins alter the cells activity and result in the physiological responses of those hormones
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28
Q

Action of water-soluble hormones

A
  1. water-soluble hormones alter cell functions by activating plasma membrane receptors, which set off a cascade of events inside the cell
  2. a typical mechanism of action of a water-soluble hormone using cyclic AMP as the second messenger
  3. since hormones that bond to plasma membrane receptors initiate a series of events, they can induce their effects at very low concentrations
  4. the cholera toxin modifies G-proteins in epithelial cells lining the intestine so they become locked in an activated state which results in the massive fluid loss this toxin causes
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29
Q

First messenger

A

the water-soluble hormone that binds to the cell membrane receptor

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30
Q

Second messenger

A

released inside the cell where hormone-stimulated response takes place

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31
Q

What determines the responsiveness of a target cell to a hormone?

A

the hormone’s concentration, the abundance of the target cell’s hormone receptors, and influences exerted by other hormones

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32
Q

The three hormonal interactions

A

permissive effect, synergetic effect, and the antagonist effect

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33
Q

How are most hormones released?

A

in short bursts, with little or no release between bursts

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34
Q

What does the regulation of hormone secretion do?

A

it normally maintains homeostasis and prevents overproduction or underproduction of a particular hormone

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35
Q

What controls hormone secretion?

A

signals from the nervous system, chemical changes in the blood, and other hormones

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36
Q

_______ feedback systems regulate hormonal secretions

A

negative

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37
Q

What is the major integrating link between the nervous and endocrine systems?

A

the hypothalamus

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38
Q

What do the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland regulate?

A

virtually all aspects of growth, development, metabolism, and homeostasis

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39
Q

Where is the pituitary gland located?

A

in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone

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40
Q

What is the pituitary gland differentiated into?

A

the anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis), the posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis), and pars intermedia

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41
Q

What controls the hormones of the anterior pituitary?

A

releasing or inhibiting hormones produced by the hypothalamus

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42
Q

Where is the blood supply to the anterior pituitary from?

A

the superior hypophyseal arteries

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43
Q

Hormones of the anterior pituitary and the cells that produce them:

A
  1. human growth hormone (hGH) is secreted by somatotrophs
  2. thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) is secreted by thyrotrophs
  3. follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) are secreted by gonadotrophs
  4. prolactin (PRL) is secreted by lactotrophs
  5. adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) and melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) are secreted by corticotrophs
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44
Q

What regulates the secretion of the anterior pituitary gland hormones?

A

hypothalamic regulating hormones and by negative feedback mechanisms

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45
Q

What is the most plentiful anterior pituitary hormone?

A

Human growth hormone (hGH)

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46
Q

What does hGH do?

A

it acts indirectly on tissues by promoting the synthesis and secretion of small protein hormones called insulinlike growth factors (IGFs)

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47
Q

What do insulinlike growth factors do?

A

stimulate general body growth and regulate various aspects of metabolism

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48
Q

What is a symptom of excess hGH?

A

hyperglycemia

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49
Q

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

A

regulated thyroid gland activities and is controlled by TFH (thyrotropin-releasing hormone)

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50
Q

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

A

-in females, initiates follicle development and secretion of estrogens in the ovaries
-in males, FSH stimulates sperm production in the testes

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51
Q

Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

A

-in females, LH stimulates estrogen secretion by ovarian cells to result in ovulation and stimulated formation of corpus luteum and secretion of progesterone
-in males, LH stimulates the interstitial cells of the testes to secrete testosterone

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52
Q

Prolactin (PRL)

A

initiates and maintains milk secretion by the mammary glands

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53
Q

Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)

A

controls the production and secretion of hormones called glucocorticoids by the cortex of the adrenal gland

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54
Q

Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)

A

increases skin pigmentation although its exact role in humans is unknown

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55
Q

Posterior pituitary gland (neurohypophysis)

A

stores and releases two hormones

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56
Q

Where is the neural connection between the hypothalamus and the neurohypophysis?

A

via the hypothalamohypophyseal tract

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57
Q

What hormones are made by the hypothalamus and stored in the posterior pituitaty?

A

oxytocin (OT) and antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

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58
Q

Oxytocin

A

stimulates contraction of the uterus and ejection of milk from the breasts

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59
Q

What stimulates oxytocin release?

A

nursing a baby after delivery

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60
Q

Antidiuretic hormone

A

stimulates water reabsorption by the kidneys and arteriolar constriction

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61
Q

Effect of ADH

A

to decrease urine volume and conserve body water

62
Q

What is ADH controlled by?

A

primarily by osmotic pressure of the blood

63
Q

Where is the thyroid gland located?

A

just below the larynx and has right and left lateral lobes

64
Q

How are thyroid hormones synthesized?

A

from iodine and tyrosine within a large glycoprotein molecule called thyroglobulin

65
Q

How are thyroid hormones transported?

A

in the blood by plasma proteins, mostly thyroxine-binding globulin

66
Q

Formation, storage, and release steps of thyroid hormones

A

iodide trapping, synthesis of thyroglobulin, oxidation of iodide, iodination of tyrosine, coupling of T1 and T2, pinocytosis and digestion of colloid, secretion of thyroid hormones, and transport in blood

67
Q

What do thyroid hormones regulate?

A

oxygen use and basal metabolic rate, cellular metabolism, and growth and development

68
Q

What is the secretion of thyroid hormone controlled by?

A

the level of iodine in the thyroid gland and by negative feedback systems involving both the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary gland

69
Q

Calcitonin

A

lowers the blood level of calcium, secretion is controlled by calcium levels in the blood

70
Q

Where are parathyroid glands?

A

embedded on the posterior surfaces of the lateral lobes of the thyroid

71
Q

Principal cells

A

in parathyroid glands; produce parathyroid hormone and oxyphil cells

72
Q

Parathyroid hormone (PTH)

A

regulates the homeostasis of calcium and phosphate by increasing blood calcium level and decreasing blood phosphate level

73
Q

Blood calcium level

A

directly controls the secretion of calcitonin and parathyroid hormone via negative feedback loops that do not involve the pituitary gland

74
Q

Where are adrenal glands located?

A

superior to the kidneys

75
Q

Three zones of the adrenal cortex

A

zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata, and zona reticularis

76
Q

Zona glomerulosa

A

secretes mineralocorticoids

77
Q

Zona fasciculata

A

secretes glucocorticoids

78
Q

Zona reticularis

A

secretes androgens

79
Q

Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)

A

increase sodium and water reabsorption and decrease potassium reabsorption, helping to regulate sodium and potassium levels in the body

80
Q

What controls secretion of mineralocorticoids?

A

the renin-angiotensin pathway and the blood level of potassium

81
Q

Glucocorticoids (cortisol)

A

promote the breakdown of proteins, formation of glucose, lipolysis, resistance to stress, anti-inflammatory effects, and depression of the immune response

82
Q

What controls the secretion of glucocorticoids?

A

it is controlled by CRH (corticotropin-releasing hormone) and ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) from the anterior pituitary

83
Q

Androgens secreted by the adrenal cortex usually have ______ _______

A

minimal effects

84
Q

What does the adrenal medulla consist of?

A

hormone-producing cells called chromaffin cells, which surround large blood-filled sinuses

85
Q

Medullary secretions

A

epinephrine and norepinephrine which produce effects similar to sympathetic responses

86
Q

Epinephrine and Norepinephrine

A

released under stress by direct innervation from the autonomic nervous system
-help the body resist stress

87
Q

Pancreas

A

a flattened organ located posterior and slightly inferior to the stomach and can be classified as both an endocrine and exocrine gland

88
Q

Histological components of the Pancreas

A

pancreatic islets or islets of Langerhans, and clusters of cells

88
Q

Alpha cells

A

secrete the hormone glucagon which increases blood glucose levels

88
Q

Beta cells

A

secrete the hormone insulin which decreases blood glucose levels

89
Q

Delta cells

A

secrete growth hormone inhibiting hormone or somatostatin, which acts as a paracrine to inhibit the secretion of insulin and glucagonF

90
Q

F-cells

A

secrete pancreatic polypeptide, which regulates release of pancreatic digestive enzymes

91
Q

How is the regulation of glucagon and insulin secretion?

A

via negative feedback mechanisms

92
Q

Ovaries

A

located in the pelvic cavity and produce sex hormones related to the development and maintenance of female sexual characteristics, reproductive cycle, pregnancy, lactation, and normal reproductive functions

93
Q

Female sex hormones

A

estrogens and progesterone
(inhibin and relaxin)

94
Q

Testes

A

lie inside the scrotum and produce sex hormones related to the development and maintenance of male sexual characteristics and normal reproductive functions

95
Q

Male sex hormones

A

testosterone (inhibin)

96
Q

Pineal gland

A

attached to the root of the third ventricle, inside the brain

97
Q

Histological components of the pineal gland

A

secretory parenchymal cells called pinealocytes, neuroglia cells, and scattered postganglionic sympathetic fibers

98
Q

Seasonal affective disorder (SAD)

A

a type of depression that arises during the winter months when day length is short, is thought to be due, in part, to over-production of melatonin.

99
Q

What can relieve seasonal affective disorder?

A

bright light therapy, repeated doses of several hours exposure to artificial light as bright as sunlight

100
Q

Thymus gland

A

secretes several hormones related to immunity

101
Q

What promotes the proliferation and maturation of T cells?

A

thymosin, thymic humoral-factor, and thymopoietin

102
Q

Eicosanoids

A

act as paracrines and autocrines in most body tissues by altering the production of second messengers, such as cyclic AMP

103
Q

What inhibits a key enzyme in prostaglandin synthesis and are used to treat a wide variety of inflammatory disorders?

A

aspirin and related nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) like ibuprofen and acetaminophen

104
Q

Growth factors

A

hormones that stimulate cell growth and division

105
Q

Examples of growth factors

A

epidermal growth factor (EGF), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), fibroblast growth factor (FGF), nerve growth factor (NGF), tumor angiogenesis factors (TAFs), insulinlike growth factor (IFG), and cytokines

106
Q

What happens if a stress is extreme, unusual, or long-lasting?

A

the normal mechanisms may not be sufficient, triggering a wide-ranging set of bodily changes called the stress response or general adaption syndrome (GAS)

107
Q

Productive stress

A

eustress

108
Q

Harmful stress

A

distress

109
Q

Stressors

A

the stimuli that produce the general adaptation syndrome

110
Q

Examples of stressors

A

any disturbance: heat or cold, surgical operations, poisons, infections, fever, and strong emotional responses

111
Q

Alarm reaction

A

initiated by nerve impulses from the hypothalamus to the sympathetic division of the ANS and adrenal medulla

112
Q

What is affected by fight-or-flight reactions?

A

increased circulation, catabolism for energy production, and decrease nonessential activites

113
Q

Resistance reaction

A

inhibited by regulating hormones secreted by the hypothalamus

114
Q

Resistance reaction regulating hormones

A

CRH (corticotropin-releasing hormone), GHRH (growth hormone releasing hormone), and TRH (thyrotropin releasing hormone)

115
Q

QCRH

A

stimulates the adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary) to increase its secretion of ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone), which in turn stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete hormones

116
Q

Resistance reactions are…

A

long-term and accelerate catabolism to provide energy to counteract stress

117
Q

Glucocorticoids

A

produced in high concentration during stress
-create distinct physiological effects

118
Q

Results from exhaustion

A

results from dramatic changes during alarm and resistance reactions

119
Q

What causes exhaustion?

A

loss of potassium, depletion of adrenal glucocorticoids, and weakened organs

120
Q

Stress-related conditions

A

gastritis, ulcerative colitis, irritable bowel syndrome, peptic ulcers, hypertension, asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, migraine headaches, anxiety, and depression

121
Q

People under stress are at a greater risk of?

A

developing chronic disease or of dying prematurely

122
Q

Link between stress and immunity

A

interleukin-1 (IL-1) produced by macrophages; it stimulated secretion of ACTH

123
Q

Two different regions of the ectoderm the pituitary gland originates from

A
  1. the anterior pituitary derives from the neurohypophyseal bud, located on the floor of the hypothalamus
  2. the anterior pituitary is derived from an outgrowth of ectoderm from the mouth called the hypophyseal pouch
124
Q

The thyroid gland develops as…

A

a midventral outgrowth of ectoderm, called the thyroid diverticulum, from the floor of the pharynx at the level of the second pair of pharyngeal pouches

125
Q

Parathyroid glands develop from…

A

endoderm as outgrowths from the third and fourth pharyngeal pouches

126
Q

The adrenal cortex is derived from…

A

intermediate mesoderm from the same region that produces the gonads

127
Q

The adrenal medulla derives from..

A

the neural crest

128
Q

The pancreas develops from…

A

the outgrowth of endoderm from the part of the foregut that later becomes the duodenum

129
Q

The pineal gland arises as…

A

an outgrowth between the thalamus and colliculi from endoderm associated with the diencephalon

130
Q

The thymus gland arises from…

A

endoderm of the third pharyngeal pouch

131
Q

Aging and pituitary gland

A

production of hGH decreases with age,
production of gonadotropins and of TSH increases with age,
-ACTH levels unchanged with age

132
Q

Aging and thyroid gland

A

decreases output of thyroxin with age

133
Q

Aging and thymus gland

A

begins to atrophy at puberty,
adrenal glands produce less cortisol and aldosterone with age

134
Q

Aging and the pancreas

A

releases insulin more slowly with age, and receptor sensitivity to glucose declines

135
Q

Aging and the ovaries

A

reduce in size and no longer respond to gonadotropins

136
Q

Pituitary gland disorders

A

pituitary dwarfism, giantism, and acromegaly
-hyposecretion of hGH
-hypersecretion of hGH during childhood results in giantism and during adulthood results in acromegaly

136
Q

Diabetes insipidus

A

disorder associated with dysfunction of the posterior pituitary
-hyposecretion of ADH causes excretion of large amounts of dilute urine and subsequent dehydration and thirst

137
Q

Thyroid gland disorders

A

cretinism, myxedema, Grave’s disease, goiter

138
Q

Cretinism

A

hyposecretion of thyroid hormones during fetal life or infancy

139
Q

Myxedema

A

hypothyroidism during adult years

140
Q

Grave’s disease

A

most common form of hyperthyroidism, an autoimmune disease

141
Q

Goiter

A

an enlarged thyroid gland

142
Q

Hypoparathyroidism

A

results in muscle tetany

143
Q

Hyperparathyroidism

A

produces osteitis fibrosa cystica

144
Q

Adrenal gland disorders

A

cushing’s syndrome, addison’s disease benign tumords A

145
Q

Cushing’s syndrome

A

results from a hypersecretion of cortisol by the adrenal cortex

146
Q

Addison’s disease

A

hyposecretion of glucocorticoids

147
Q

Diabetes Mellitus

A

a group of disorders causes by an inability to produce or use insulin

148
Q

Type I Diabetes

A

insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus is caused by an absolute deficiency of insulin

149
Q

Type II Diabetes

A

insulin-independent diabetes is caused by a down-regulation of insulin receptors

150
Q

Hyperinsulinism

A

results when too much insulin is present and causes hypoglycemia and possibly insulin shock

Anatomy II (10 decks)

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