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Anatomy II > Ch. 16 The Autonomic Nervous System and Higher-Order Functions > Flashcards

Ch. 16 The Autonomic Nervous System and Higher-Order Functions Flashcards

1
Q

The somatic nervous system operates under ______ control

A

conscious control

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1
Q

What is rarely affected by the somatic nervous system?

A

long-term survival

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2
Q

What type of muscles does the somatic nervous system control?

A

skeletal muscles

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3
Q

The autonomic nervous system operates ______

A

without conscious instruction

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4
Q

What type of effectors does the autonomic nervous system control?

A

visceral effectors

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5
Q

What does the autonomic nervous system coordinate?

A

system functions:
-cardiovascular
-respiratory
-digestive
-urinary
-reproductive

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6
Q

What type of neurons do the somatic nervous system include?

A

both somatic and motor neurons

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7
Q

Sensory neurons are related to?

A

-touch,
-pain,
-temperature,
-proprioception (sense of self-position),
-sight,
-hearing,
-taste,
-smell,
-equilibrium

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8
Q

What do motor neurons innervate?

A

skeletal muscle

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9
Q

Where does the autonomic nervous system receive input from?

A

sensory receptors located in organs, blood vessels, muscles, and the nervous system

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10
Q

What does the ANS regulate the activity of?

A

-smooth muscle,
-cardiac muscle,
-adipose tissue,
-certain glands

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11
Q

What is the ANS regulated by?

A

centers in the brain:
-hypothalamus
-medulla oblongata

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12
Q

Integrative centers

A

for autonomic activity in the hypothalamus
-neurons comparable to upper motor neurons in SNS

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13
Q

Visceral motor neurons

A

preganglionic neurons in the brain stem and spinal cord

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14
Q

Preganglionic fibers

A

-axons of preganglionic neurons
-leave CNS and synapse on ganglionic neurons

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15
Q

Autonomic ganglia

A

-contain many ganglionic neurons
-two kinds: sympathetic and parasympathetic

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16
Q

What do ganglionic neurons innervate?

A

visceral effectors:
-cardiac muscle,
-smooth muscle,
-glands,
-adipose tissue

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17
Q

Postganglionic fibers

A

axons of ganglionic neurons

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18
Q

Divisions of the ANS

A

sympathetic and parasympathetic

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19
Q

What increases with the sympathetic division of the ANS?

A

increases:
-alertness,
-metabolic rate, and
-muscular abilities

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20
Q

What increases with the parasympathetic division of the ANS?

A

digestion

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21
Q

When does the sympathetic division of the ANS kick in?

A

during exertion, stress, or emergency

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22
Q

What is the sympathetic division referred to as?

A

“fight or flight”

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23
Q

When does the parasympathetic division of the ANS kick in?

A

during resting conditions

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24
Q

What is the parasympathetic division referred to as?

A

“rest and digest”

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25
Q

Why is the sympathetic division “fight or flight”?

A

its stimulation leads to increased alertness and metabolism to be ready for an emergency

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26
Q

Why is the parasympathetic division referred to as “rest and digest”?

A

its stimulation slow down most body activity

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27
Q

Sensory input of SNS

A

from somatic senses and special senses

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28
Q

Control of motor output of SNS

A

voluntary control from cerebral cortex with contributions from basal ganglia, cerebellum, brain stem, and spinal cord

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29
Q

Motor neuron pathway of the SNS

A

one-neuron pathway: somatic motor neurons extending from CNS synapse directly with effector

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30
Q

Neurotransmitters and hormones of SNS

A

acetylcholine (ACh)

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31
Q

Effectors of SNS

A

skeletal muscle

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32
Q

Responses of SNS

A

contraction of skeletal muscle

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33
Q

Sensory input of ANS

A

mainly from interoceptors; some from somatic senses and special senses

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34
Q

Control of motor output of ANS

A

involuntary control from the hypothalamus, limbic system, brain stem, and spinal cord; limited control from cerebral cortex

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35
Q

Motor neuron pathway of ANS

A

usually two-neuron pathway:
-preganglionic neurons extending from CNS synapse with postganglionic neurons in autonomic ganglion
-postganglionic neurons extending from ganglion synapse with visceral effector
-preganglionic neurons may extend from CNS to synapse with chromaffin cells of adrenal medullae

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36
Q

Neurotransmitters and hormones of ANS

A

-all sympathetic and parasympathetic preganglionic neurons release ACh
-most sympathetic postganglionic neurons release norepinephrine (NE); those to sweat glands release ACh
-all parasympathetic postganglionic neurons release ACh
-Chromaffin cells of adrenal medullae release epinephrine and NE

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37
Q

Effectors of ANS

A

smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands

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38
Q

Responses of ANS

A

-contraction or relaxation of smooth muscle
-increased or decreased rate and force of contraction of cardiac muscle
-increased or decreased secretions of glands

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39
Q

What two motor neurons do each division of the ANS have?

A

preganglionic and postganglionic

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40
Q

In the sympathetic division, where are the cell bodies of preganglionic neurons?

A

in the lateral horns of the gray matter in the 12 thoracic and first 2 or 3 lumbar segments

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41
Q

In the parasympathetic division, where are the cell bodies of preganglionic neurons?

A

the nuclei of four cranial nerves (III, VII, IX, and X) in the brain stem and in the lateral gray matter of sacral segments 2-4 of the spinal cord

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42
Q

Based on the neurotransmitter they produce and release, what are autonomic neurons considered?

A

cholinergic or adrenergic

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43
Q

Cholinergic neurons release what neurotransmitter?

A

acetylcholine

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44
Q

Adrenergic neurons release what neurotransmitter?

A

norepinephrine (noradrenalin)

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45
Q

Cholinergic receptors include:

A

nicotinic and muscarinic receptors

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46
Q

Major locations of cholinergic receptors

A

integral proteins in postsynaptic plasma membranes

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47
Q

Major locations of nicotinic receptors

A

-Plasma membrane of postganglionic sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons
-Chromaffin cells of adrenal medullae
-Sarcolemma of skeletal muscle fibers

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48
Q

Major locations of muscarinic receptors

A

-Effectors innervated by parasympathetic postganglionic neurons
-Sweat glands innervated by cholinergic sympathetic postganglionic neurons
-Skeletal muscle blood vessels innervated by cholinergic sympathetic postganglionic neurons

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49
Q

Effects of nicotinic receptor activation

A

-excitation–>impulses in postganglionic neurons
-epinephrine and norepinephrine secretion
-excitation–>contraction

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50
Q

Effects of muscarinic receptor activation

A

-in some, excitation; in others, inhibition
-increased sweating
-inhibition–>relaxation–>vasodilation

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51
Q

Major locations of adrenergic receptors

A

-integral proteins in postsynaptic plasma membranes; activated by the neurotransmitter norepinephrine and the hormones norepinephrine and epinephrine

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52
Q

Major locations of a1 receptor

A

-smooth muscle fibers in blood vessels that serve salivary glands, skin, mucosal membranes, kidneys, and abdominal viscera
-radial muscle in iris of eye
-sphincter muscles of stomach and urinary bladder
-salivary gland cells
-sweat glands on palms and soles

53
Q

Major locations of a2 receptor

A

-smooth muscle fibers in some blood vessels
-cells of pancreatic islets that secrete the hormone insulin
-pancreatic acinar cells
-platelets in blood

54
Q

Major locations of B1 receptor

A

-cardiac muscle fibers
-juxtaglomerular cells of kidneys
-posterior pituitary
-adipose cells

55
Q

Major locations of B2 receptor

A

-smooth muscle in walls of airways; in blood vessels that serve the heart, skeletal muscle, adipose tissue, and liver; and in walls of visceral organs, such as urinary bladder
-ciliary muscle in eye
-hepatocytes in liver

56
Q

Major locations of B3 receptor

A

brown adipose tissue

57
Q

Effects of a1 receptor activation

A

-excitation–>contraction, which causes vasoconstriction, dilation of pupil, and closing of sphincters
-secretion of K+ and water
-increased sweating

58
Q

Effects of a2 receptor activation

A

-inhibition–>relaxation–>vasodilation
-decreased insulin secretion
-inhibition of digestive enzyme secretion
-aggregation to form platelet plug

59
Q

Effects of B1 receptor activation

A

-excitation–>increased force and rate of contraction
-renin secretion
-antidiuretic hormone (ADH) secretion
-breakdown of triglycerides–>release of fatty acids into blood

60
Q

Effects of B2 receptor activation

A

-inhibtion–>relaxation, which causes dilation of airways, vasodilation, and relaxation of organ walls
-inhibition–>relaxation
-glycogenolysis (breakdown of glycogen into glucose)
-thermogenesis (heat production)

61
Q

Alpha-1 (a1)

A

-more common type of alpha receptor
-releases intracellular calcium ions from reserves in the endoplasmic reticulum
-has an excitatory effect on the target cell

62
Q

Alpha-2 (a2)

A

-lowers cAMP levels in cytoplasm
-has inhibitory effect on the cell
-helps coordinate sympathetic and parasympathetic activities

63
Q

Beta (B) receptors

A

-affect membranes in many organs (skeletal muscles, lungs, heart, and liver)
-trigger metabolic changes in target cell
-stimulation increases intracellular cAMP levels

64
Q

Beta-1 (B1)

A

increases metabolic activity

65
Q

Beta-2 (B2)

A

triggers relaxation of smooth muscles along respiratory tract

66
Q

Beta-3 (B3)

A

leads to lipolysis, the breakdown of triglycerides in adipocytes

67
Q

The sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the ANS are ________ to each other

A

antagonistic

68
Q

Parasympathetic activation

A

-centers on relaxation, food processing, and energy absorption
-localized effects, last a few seconds at most

69
Q

Major effects of parasympathetic division

A

-constriction of pupils to restrict the amount of light that enters the eyes
-secretion by digestive glands (salivary, gastric, duodenal, and intestinal glands)
-secretion of hormones
-changes in blood flow and glandular activity
-increase in smooth muscle activity
-stimulation and coordination of defecation
-contraction of the urinary bladder during urination
-constriction of the respiratory passageways
-reduction in heart rate and in the force of contraction

70
Q

Neuromuscular and Neuroglandular Junctions

A

-release ACh
-small, with narrow synaptic clefts
-effects of stimulation are short lived

71
Q

Nicotinic receptors

A

-on surfaces of ganglion cells
-exposure to ACh causes excitation of ganglionic neurons or muscle fiber

72
Q

Muscarinic receptors

A

-at cholinergic neuromuscular or neuroglandular junctions
-at few cholinergic junctions
-G proteins

73
Q

What does nicotine bind to

A

nicotinic receptors

74
Q

What does nicotine target?

A

autonomic ganglia and skeletal neuromuscular junctions

75
Q

What does muscarine bind to?

A

muscarine receptors

76
Q

What does muscarine target?

A

parasympathetic neuromuscular or neuroglandular junctions

77
Q

Distribution of SNS

A

wide regions of body
-skin
-sweat glands
-arrector pili muscles of hair follicles
-adipose tissue
-smooth muscle of blood vessels

78
Q

Location of preganglionic neuron cell bodies and site of outflow of SNS

A

lateral gray horns of spinal cord segments T1-L2

79
Q

Associated ganglia of SNS

A

sympathetic trunk ganglia and prevertebral ganglia

80
Q

Ganglia locations of SNS

A

close to CNS and distant from visceral effectors

81
Q

Axon length and divergence of SNS

A

preganglionic neurons with short axons synapse with many postganglionic neurons with long axons that pass to many visceral effector

82
Q

White and gray rami communicantes in SNS

A

both present:
-white rami contain myelinated preganglionic axons;
-gray rami contain unmyelinated postganglionic axons

83
Q

Neurotransmitters of SNS

A

ACh and NE

84
Q

Physiological effects of SNS

A

fight-or-flight responses

85
Q

Distribution of the PSNS

A

limited mainly to head and to viscera thorax, abdomen, and pelvis; some blood vessels

86
Q

Location of preganglionic neuron cell bodies and site of outflow PSNS

A

Nuclei of cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X and lateral gray matter of spinal cord segments S2-S4

87
Q

Associated ganglia of PSNS

A

terminal ganglia

88
Q

Ganglia locations of PSNS

A

typically near or within wall of visceral effectors

89
Q

Axon length and divergence of PSNS

A

preganglionic neurons with long axons usually synapse with 4-5 postganglionic neurons with short axons that pass to a single visceral effector

90
Q

White and gray rami communicates PSNS

A

neither present

91
Q

Neurotransmitters of PSNS

A

ACh

92
Q

Physiological effects of the PSNS

A

rest-and-digest activities

93
Q

Dual innervation of sympathetic division

A

-widespread impact
-reaches organs and tissues throughout body

94
Q

Dual innervation of parasympathetic division

A

innervates only specific visceral structures

95
Q

Anatomy of Dual Innervation

A

-parasympathetic postganglionic fibers accompany cranial nerves to peripheral destinations
-sympathetic innervation reaches same structures

96
Q

Visceral Reflexes

A

-provide automatic motor responses
-can be modified, facilitates, or inhibited by higher centers, especially hypthalamus

97
Q

Long reflexes

A

-autonomic equivalents of polysynaptic reflexes
-visceral sensory neurons deliver information to CNS along dorsal roots of spinal nerves
-ANS carries motor commands to visceral effectors
-Coordinate activities of entire organ

98
Q

Short reflexes

A

-Bypass CNS
-Involve sensory neurons and interneurons located within autonomic ganglia
-interneurons synapse on ganglionic neurons
-motor commands distributed by postganglionic fibers
-control simple motor responses with localized effects
-one small part of target organ

99
Q

What are controlled by autonomic reflexes?

A

-heart rate
-force of ventricular contraction
-blood pressure
-blood vessel diameter

100
Q

What is the reflex arc composed of?

A

-receptor
-sensory neuron
-integrating center
-motor neurons
-an effector

101
Q

What monitors all other systems?

A

the nervous system

102
Q

What 3 characteristics do higher-order functions share?

A
  1. require the cerebral cortex
  2. involve conscious and unconscious information processing
  3. are not part of programmed “wiring” of brain
103
Q

Fact memories

A

specific bits of information

104
Q

Skilled memories

A

-learned motor behaviors
-incorporated at unconscious level with repetition
-programmed behaviors stored in appropriate area of brain stem
-complex skill memories are stored and involve motor patterns in the basal nuclei, cerebral cortex and cerebellum

105
Q

Short-term memories

A

-information that can be recalled immediately
-contain small bits of information
-primary

106
Q

Memory consolidation

A

conversion from short-term to long-term memory

107
Q

2 types of long-term memory

A
  1. secondary memories fade and require effort to recall
  2. tertiary memories are with you for life
108
Q

What are the brain regions involved with memory consolidation and access?

A

-amygdaloid body and hippocampus
-nucleus basalis
-cerebral cortex

109
Q

Facilitation at Synapses

A

-neural circuit repeatedly activated
-synaptic terminals begin continuously releasing neurotransmitter
-neurotransmitter binds to receptors on postsynaptic membrane
-produces graded depolarization
-brings membrane closer to threshold
-facilitation results affects all neurons in circuit

110
Q

What is deep sleep called?

A

slow wave or non-REM (NREM) sleep

111
Q

What declines during deep sleep?

A

heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate, and energy utilization up to 30%

112
Q

Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep

A

-active dreaming occurs
-changes in blood pressure and respiratory rate
-less receptive to outside stimuli
-muscle tone decreases
-intense inhibition of somatic motor neurons
-eyes move rapidly during dreams

113
Q

Nighttime sleep pattern

A

-alternates between levels
-begins in deep sleep
-REM periods average 5 minutes in length, increase to 20 min.

114
Q

What increases during sleep?

A

Protein synthesis in neurons

115
Q

Arousal and the reticular activating system (RAS)

A

-awakening from sleep
-the function of the reticular formation
-extensive interconnections with sensory, motor, integrative nuclei, and pathways along the brain stem
-determined by complex interactions between reticular formation and cerebral cortex

116
Q

Reticular Activating System (RAS)

A

-important brain stem component
-diffuse network in reticular formation
-from medulla oblongata to midbrain
-stimulation of RAS produces widespread activation of cerebral cortex

117
Q

Brain chemistry

A

changes in normal balance between two or more neurotransmitters can profoundly affect brain function

118
Q

What is Huntington’s Disease?

A

destruction of ACh-secreting and GABA-secreting neurons in basal nuclei

119
Q

Symptoms of Huntington’s disease

A

-difficulty controlling movements
-intellectual abilities gradually decline

120
Q

Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD)

A

a powerful hallucinogenic drug
-activates serotonin receptors in brain stem, hypothalamus, and limbic system

121
Q

What is Parkinson’s Disease?

A

inadequate dopamine production causing motor problems

122
Q

Common age-related anatomical changes in the nervous system

A

-reduction in brain size and weight
-reduction in the number of neurons
-decrease in blood flow to the brain
-changes in the synaptic organization of the brain
-intracellular and extracellular changes in CNS neurons

123
Q

Reduction in brain size and weight

A

-decrease in volume of cerebral cortex
-narrower gyri and wider sulci
-larger subarachnoid space

124
Q

Reduction in number of neurons

A

-brain shrinkage linked to loss of cortical neurons
-no neuronal loss in brain stem nuclei

125
Q

Decrease in blood flow to the brain

A

Arteriosclerosis
-fatty deposits in walls of blood vessels
-reduces blood flow through artery
Cerebrovascular accident (CVA), or stroke
-may damage surrounding neural tissue

126
Q

Changes in synaptic organization of brain

A

-number of dendritic branches, spines, and interconnections decreases
-synaptic connections lost
-rate of neurotransmitter production declines

127
Q

Sensory system effects of agining

A

-hearing, balance, vision, smell, and taste become less acute
-reaction times slowed
-reflexes weaken or disappear

128
Q

Motor control effects of agining

A

-precision decreases
-takes longer to perform

129
Q

Senility

A

also called senile dementia
degenerative changes
-memory loss
-lose the ability to store new memories
-emotional disturbances
-Alzheimer’s disease is the most common type

130
Q
A

Anatomy II (10 decks)

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