ch 13 Flashcards
grounded theory
An approach to the analysis of qualitative data in which the goal is to use the data to generate theory; the data collection and analysis proceed in an iterative (recursive) fashion
narrative analysis
An approach focused on the search for and analysis of stories that people use to understand their lives and the world around them.
- approach that reduces fragmentation
qualitative data as an “attractive nuisance”
attractive because of their richness and the insight that may be gained from them, but also a nuisance because that very richness can create analytical difficulties that are not always acknowledged.
General strategies of qualitative data analysis
analytic induction and grounded theory
Basic operations in qualitative data analysis
coding and narrative analysis, the latter differing in style from both grounded theory and the secondary analysis of qualitative data
iterative research- qualitative
meaning that analysis takes place after some of the data have been collected and then the implications of that analysis shape further data collection
Analytic induction is an example of a type of qualitative research that uses an
iterative process
what makes Analytic induction unique
universal explanation
If a case inconsistent with the hypothesis is encountered
reformulation and redefinition
problem with analytic induction is that (unlike grounded theory) it
does not provide useful guidelines on the number of cases required before the absence of negative cases can be assumed and the validity of the hypothetical explanation (whether reformulated or not) can be confirmed.
Cases that are inconsistent with the researcher’s hypothesis in analytic induction are called _______ cases
deviant correct
What is reformulated or redefined as a matter of course during the process of analytic induction
Hypothesis correct
basic features of grounded theory
- coding
- constant comaprison
-theoretical saturation
constant comparison
Constant comparison: continuous comparison of new and existing data within a particular concept or category. Glaser and Strauss (1967) advised writing a memo (see page 320) on each concept/category after a few phenomena have been coded. Comparison also entails sensitivity to differences between emerging concepts/categories.
Codes … serve as shorthand devices to
label, separate, compile, and organize data
This coding process differs from the coding used in the analysis of quantitative data
First, whereas quantitative analysis often involves testing a pre-existing theory, grounded theory uses coding as an important first step in the generation of theory. Second, whereas in quantitative analysis coding is more or less a way of managing data that have already been at least broadly categorized, in grounded theory (and other approaches to qualitative data analysis), coding is more tentative and fluid. The data are treated as potential indicators of concepts/categories, and the indicators are repeatedly compared to see which concepts/categories they fit with best. Ad hoc compromises may have to be made when more than one researcher is doing the coding
three types of coding
- Open coding: “the process of breaking down, examining, comparing, conceptualizing, and categorizing data” (p. 61); this process stays very close to the data and yields the concepts that are later grouped together to form categories. Thus, concepts such as anger, jealousy, or affection could form the category “emotion.”
- Axial coding: “a set of procedures whereby data are put back together in new ways after open coding, by making connections between categories” (p. 96). This is done by linking codes to contexts, consequences, patterns of interaction, and apparent causes. Thus, the category of emotion, above, could be linked to the contexts in which it is expressed: for example, contexts of hardship or loss
- Selective coding: “the procedure of selecting the core category, systematically relating it to other categories, validating those relationships, and filling in categories that need further refinement and development” (p. 116). A core category is the focus around which other categories are integrated—what Strauss and Corbin called the storyline that frames the account. In the case of hardship and loss, the core category might be “adaptation.
axial coding has been especially controversial because it
sometimes perceived as closing off the coding process too quickly
products of different phases of grounded theory
Concepts: the “building blocks of theory” (Strauss & Corbin, 1998, p. 101), the discrete phenomena produced through open coding
* Categories: at a higher level of abstraction, subsume two or more concepts. An especially crucial category may become a core category (see Box 13.1).
* Properties: attributes or aspects of a category
* Hypotheses: initial hunches about relationships between concepts
* Theory: “a set of well-developed categories … that are systematically interrelated through statements of relationship to form a theoretical framework that explains some relevant social … or other phenomenon” (Strauss & Corbin, 1998, p. 22). In grounded theory there are two levels of theory: substantive and formal. A substantive theory pertains to a certain empirical instance of a phenomenon such as racial prejudice in a hospital setting (see Box 14.1). A formal theory is at a higher level of abstraction and has applicability to several substantive areas, such as prejudice generally or in a variety of spheres. The generation of formal theory requires data collection in different settings.
Processes and outcomes in grounded theory
- The researcher begins with a general research question (step 1).
- Relevant people and/or incidents are theoretically sampled (step 2).
- Relevant data are collected (step 3).
- Data are coded (step 4), which may, at the level of open coding, generate concepts (step 4a).
- There is a constant movement backward and forward among the first four steps, so that early coding suggests a need for new data, which leads to theoretical sampling, and so on.
- Through constant comparison of indicators and concepts (step 5) categories are generated (step 5a). It’s crucial to ensure a fit between indicators and concepts.
- Categories become saturated in the course of the coding process (step 6).
- Relationships between categories are explored (step 7) in such a way that hypotheses about connections between categories emerge (step 7a).
- Further data are collected via theoretical sampling (steps 8 and 9).
- The collection of data is likely to be governed by the theoretical saturation principle (step 10) and the testing of the emerging hypotheses (step 11), which leads to specification of substantive theory (step 11a). See Box 13.2 for an illustration.
- The substantive theory may eventually be explored using grounded theory processes in a different setting from the one in which it was generated (step 12). In this way a formal theory (step 12a)—relating to more abstract categories not specifically examined in the research—can be generated.
memo
an analytical note that researchers write for themselves or colleagues about a code, category, or other ideas they might have about their data. Memo-writing occurs throughout the research process and assists researchers in developing their tentative analytical hunches
limits of grounded theory
- Some question whether researchers can fully suspend their awareness of existing theories or concepts until the late stages of analysis when their theories are supposed to emerge.
- time required to transcribe recordings of interviews, for example, can make it difficult for a researcher with a tight deadline to carry out a genuine grounded theory analysis, given the constant interplay of data collection and conceptualization that it requires.
- It isn’t clear that the grounded theory method necessarily results in theory. It offers a rigorous approach to the generation of concepts and categories, but it is often difficult to see what theory, in the sense of an explanation of something, is put forward.
- Grounded theory tends to invite researchers to code their data into discrete chunks. However, some commentators believe that this kind of fragmentation results in a loss of context and narrative flow
