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Anatomy and Physiology > ch 12 > Flashcards

ch 12 Flashcards

1
Q

Biotechnology

A

The manipulation of organisms or their components to make useful products

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2
Q

For thousands of years, humans have

A
  • Used microbes to make wine and cheese

- Selectively bred stock, dogs, and other animals

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3
Q

DNA Technology

A

The set of modern laboratory techniques used to study and manipulate genetic material

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4
Q

Genetic Engineering

A

Involves manipulating genes for practical purposes

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5
Q

Gene cloning

A

Leads to the production of multiple, identical copies of a gene-carrying piece of DNA in vitro (in a test tube) to form a single DNA molecule

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6
Q

Recombinant DNA

A

Formed by joining nucleotide sequences from two different sources and often different species

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7
Q

2 different sources for Recombinant DNA

A
  1. Gene that will be cloned

2. Vector, a gene carrier

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8
Q

Plasmids

A

Small, circular DNA molecules that replicate separately from the much larger bacterial chromosome (often used as vectors)

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9
Q

Steps in cloning a gene

A
  1. Plasmid DNA is isolated
  2. DNA containing the gene of interest is isolated
  3. Plasmid DNA is treated with a restriction enzyme that cuts in one place, opening the circle
  4. DNA with the target gene is treated with the same enzyme, and many fragments are produced
  5. Plasmid and target DNA are mixed and associate with each other.
  6. Recombinant DNA molecules are produced when the enzyme DNA ligase joins plasmid and target segments together.
  7. The recombinant plasmid containing the target gene is taken up by a bacterial cell
  8. The bacterial cell reproduces to form a clone.
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10
Q

Restriction Enzyme

A
  • Recognize a particular short DNA sequence, called a restriction site
  • Cut both strands of the DNA at precise points in the sequence, yielding pieces of DNA called restriction fragments
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11
Q

Once strands are cut, fragments of DNA can be pasted together by

A

DNA ligase

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12
Q

Recombinant cells and organisms constructed by DNA technologies are used to manufacture mostly what?

A

Proteins

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13
Q

Bacteria are often the best organisms for manufacturing a protein product because

A
  • they have plasmids and phages available for use as gene-cloning vectors
  • can be grown rapidly and cheaply
  • can be engineered to produce large amounts of a particular protein
  • often secrete the proteins directly into their growth medium
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14
Q

Yeast Cells

A
  • Eukaryotes
  • Easy to grow
  • Have long been used to make bread and beer
  • Can take up foreign DNA and integrate it into their genomes
  • Are often better than bacteria at synthesizing and secreting eukaryotic proteins
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15
Q

What cells must be used to produce glycoproteins?

A

Mammalian Cells

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16
Q

Glycoproteins

A

Proteins with chains of sugars attached

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17
Q

Examples of glycoproteins

A
  • Human Erythropoietin (EPO)
  • Factor VIII to treat hemophilia
  • Tissue plasminogen activator (TPA)
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18
Q

Pharmaceutical researchers are currently exploring the mass production of gene products by

A

Whole animals or plants

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19
Q

Recombinant animals

A
  • Are difficult and costly to produce

- May be cloned to produce more animals with the same traits

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20
Q

DNA Technology is widely used to

A

Produce medicines and to diagnose diseases

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21
Q

Therapeutic hormones produced by DNA technology include

A
  • Insulin to treat diabetes
  • Human growth hormone to treat dwarfism
  • Tissue plasminogen activator (TPA)
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22
Q

Tissue Plasminogen Activator (TPA)

A

A protein that helps dissolve blood clots and reduces the risk of subsequent heart attacks

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23
Q

DNA technology is used to

A
  • Test for inherited diseases
  • Detect infectious agents such as HIV
  • Produce vaccines
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24
Q

Vaccines

A

Harmless variants (mutants) or derivatives of a pathogen that stimulate the immune system to mount a lasting defense against that pathogen, thereby preventing disease

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25
Q

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs)

A

Contain one or more genes introduced by artificial means

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26
Q

Transgenic organisms

A

Contain at least one gene from another species

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27
Q

The most common vector used to introduce new genes into plant cells is

A

Ti plasmid

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28
Q

Ti Plasmid

A

A plasmid from the soil bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens

29
Q

Steps of how Ti Plasmid is used

A
  1. The gene is inserted into the plasmid
  2. The recombinant plasmid is introduced into a plant cell
  3. The plant cell grows into a plant
30
Q

GMO crops may be able to help a great many hungry people by improving

A
  • Food production
  • Shelf life
  • Pest resistance
  • The nutritional value of crops
31
Q

Golden Rice

A

A transgenic variety created in 2000 with a few daffodil genes, produces yellow grains containing beta-carotene, which our body uses to make vitamin A

32
Q

Pharmaceutical trials currently under way involve using modified

A
  • Rice to treat infant diarrhea
  • Corn to treat cystic fibrosis
  • Safflower to treat diabetes
  • Duckweed to treat hepatitis
33
Q

Agricultural researchers are producing transgenic animals by

A

Injecting cloned genes directly into the nuclei of fertilized eggs

34
Q

Genetically modified pigs

A

Convert less healthy fatty acids to omega-3 fatty acids, producing meat with 4-5 times as much healthy omega-3 fat as regular pork

35
Q

Atlantic salmon

A

Genetically modified to mature in half the time of conventional salmon and grow to twice the size

36
Q

To guard against rogue microbes, scientists developed

A
  • Strict laboratory safety and containment procedures
  • A set of guidelines
  • The genetic crippling of transgenic organisms to ensure that they cannot survive outside the laboratory
  • A prohibition on certain obviously dangerous experiments
37
Q

Genetically modified organisms are used in crop production because they are:

A
  • more nutritious

- cheaper to produce

38
Q

A human study of Golden Rice

A
  • was conducted jointly by Chinese and American scientists and published in 2012
  • concluded that GMO rice can be indeed be effective in preventing vitamin A deficiency among children who rely on rice as a staple food
39
Q

Concerns remain about transgenic plants

A
  • plants might pass their new genes to related species in nearby wild areas
  • plants might disturb the composition of the natural ecosystem
40
Q

Gene therapy

A

The alteration of a diseased individual’s genes for therapeutic purposes

41
Q

One possible procedure of gene therapy is

A
  1. A gene from a healthy person is cloned, converted to an RNA version, and then inserted into the RNA genome of a harmless virus
  2. Bone marrow cells are taken from the patient and infected with the recombinant virus
  3. The virus inserts a DNA version of its genome, including the normal human gene, into the cell’s DNA
  4. The engineered cells are then injected back into the patient
42
Q

Successes of gene therapy happened when it treated

A

Sever Combined Immunodeficiency and Leber’s Congenital Amaurosis

43
Q

Ethical questions about the use of gene therapy

A
  • Tampering with human genes in any way will inevitably lead to the practice of eugenics, the deliberate effort to control the genetic makeup of human populations
  • No fundamental difference between the transplantation of genes into somatic cells and the transplantation of organs
44
Q

DNA profiling

A

The analysis of DNA samples to determine whether they came from the same individual

45
Q

In a typical investigation involving a DNA profile:

A
  1. DNA samples are isolated from the crime scene, suspects, victims, or other evidence
  2. Selected markers from each DNA sample are amplified (copied many times), producing a large sample of DNA fragments
  3. The amplified DNA markers are compared, providing data about which samples are from the same individual
46
Q

Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)

A

A technique by which a specific segment of a DNA molecule can be targeted and quickly amplified in the laboratory

47
Q

PCR relies upon

A

A pair of short primers

48
Q

Primers

A

Chemically synthesized, single-stranded DNA molecules with sequences that are complementary to sequences at each end of the target sequence

49
Q

About primers

A
  • One primer is complementary to one strand at one end of the target sequence
  • The second primer is complementary to the other strand at the other end of the sequence
  • The primers thus bind to sequences that flank the target sequence, marking the start and end points for the segment of DNA being amplified
50
Q

Basic steps of PCR

A
  1. The reaction mixture is heated to separate the strands of the DNA double helices
  2. The strands are cooled. As they cool, primer molecules hydrogen-bond to their target sequences on the DNA
  3. A heat-stable DNA polymerase builds new DNA strands by extending the primers in the 5 to 3 direction
51
Q

Advantages of PCR

A
  1. The ability to amplify DNA from a small sample
  2. Rapid Results
  3. A reaction that is highly sensitive, copying only the target sequence
52
Q

PCR has had a major impact on

A

Biological research and biotechnology

53
Q

PCR has been used to amplify DNA from

A
  • Fragments of ancient DNA from a mummified human
  • a 40,000-year-old frozen woolly mammoth
  • a 30-million-year-old plant fossil
  • DNA from fingerprints or from tiny amounts of blood, tissue, or semen found at crime scene
54
Q

Gel electrophoresis

A

A method that separates macromolecules, usually proteins or nucleic acids, on the basis of size, electrical charge, or other physical properties

55
Q

Gel electrophoresis can be used to separate DNA molecules based on size as follows:

A
  1. A DNA sample is placed at one end of a porous gel
  2. Current is applied, and DNA molecules move from the negative electrode toward the positive electrode
  3. Shorted DNA fragments move through the gel matrix more quickly and travel farther through the gel
  4. DNA fragments appear as bands, visualized through staining or detecting radioactivity or fluorescence
  5. Each band is a collection of DNA molecules of the same length
56
Q

Repetitive DNA

A

Consists of nucleotide sequences that are present in multiple copies in the genome

57
Q

Short tandem repeats (STRs)

A

Short nucleotide sequences that are repeated in tandem, composed of different numbers of repeating units in individuals, that are used in DNA profiling

58
Q

STR analysis

A
  • Compares the lengths of STR sequences at specific sites in the genome
  • Typically analyzed 13 sites scattered in the genome
59
Q

DNA profiling is used to

A
  1. Determine guilt or innocence in a crime
  2. Settle questions of paternity
  3. Probe the origin of nonhuman materials
60
Q

What was the one of the strangest cases of DNA profiling?

A

Cheddar Man, a 9000-year-old skeleton found in a cave near Cheddar, England

61
Q

Cheddar Man case

A
  • DNA was extracted from his tooth and analyzed
  • The profile showed that he was a direct ancestor of a present-day schoolteacher who lived only a half mile from the cave
62
Q

Geneticists have cataloged many

A

single-base-pair variations in the genome

63
Q

Single-base-pair variation found in at least 1% of the population is called a

A

Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP)

64
Q

SNPs occur on average about once in 100 to 300 base pairs in the human genome

A
  • In the coding sequences of genes

- In noncoding sequences between genes

65
Q

SNPs may alter

A

A restriction site - the sequence recognized by a restriction enzyme

66
Q

The alteration SNP makes can change

A

The lengths of the restriction fragments formed by that enzyme when it cuts the DNA

67
Q

A sequence variation of the SNP makes is called

A

Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP)

68
Q

RFLPs can serve as

A

Genetic markers for particular loci in the genome

Anatomy and Physiology (13 decks)

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