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Anatomy and Physiology > Biology Ch 10 > Flashcards

Biology Ch 10 Flashcards

1
Q

Molecular Biology

A

The study of heredity at the molecular level

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2
Q

Frederick Griffith

A

Killed pathogenic bacteria, mixed with living harmless bacteria, and those became pathogenic.

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3
Q

Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase

A

Used bacteriophages to show that DNA is the genetic material of T2.

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4
Q

Bacteriophages

A

Viruses that infect bacterial cells.

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5
Q

Radioactive sulfur detects

A

Proteins (outside)

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6
Q

Radioactive Phosphorus detects

A

DNA (inside)

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7
Q

Replication cycle of phage T2

A
  1. A phage attaches itself to a bacterial cell.
  2. The phage injects its DNA into the bacterium.
  3. The phage DNA directs the host cell to make more phage DNA and proteins; new phages assemble.
  4. The cell lyses and releases the new phages.
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8
Q

Nucleotides

A

Long chains (polymers) of chemical units (monomers)

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9
Q

Polynucleotide

A

A nucleotide polymer (chain)

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10
Q

Nucleotide is composed of

A

Nitrogenous base, 5-C Sugar, and Phosphate group.

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11
Q

Nucleotides are joined by

A

Sugar-phosphate backbone

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12
Q

Nitrogen-containing base

A

Adenine, Cytosine, Thymine, and Guanine

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13
Q

Thymine & Cytosine

A

Pyrimidines

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14
Q

Adenine & Guanine

A

Purines

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15
Q

DNA

A

Deoxyribonucleic Acid

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16
Q

Nucleic refers to

A

DNA’s location in the nuclei of eukaryotic cells

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17
Q

RNA uses / has

A

Sugar Ribose and Uracil instead of Thymine

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18
Q

Rosalind Franklin

A

Was the one who produced an X-ray image of DNA

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19
Q

Watson and Crick

A

Realized that DNA consisted of 2 polynucleotide strands wrapped into a double helix.

Won Nobel Prize in 1962

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20
Q

Double Helix

A

The sugar-phosphate backbone is on the outside

The nitrogenous bases are perpendicular to the backbone in the interior.

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21
Q

A & T forms

A

2 Hydrogen bonds

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22
Q

C & G forms

A

3 Hydrogen bonds

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23
Q

Semiconservative Model

A

2 DNA stands separate.

Each strand becomes a template for other strands

Each new DNA helix has one old strand with one new strand

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24
Q

Replication of a DNA molecule begins at

A

Origins of replication

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25
Q

Origins of replication

A

Short stretches of DNA having a specific sequence of nucleotides.

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26
Q

Proteins that initiate DNA replication

A

Attach to the DNA at the origin of replication & Separate the 2 strands of the double helix

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27
Q

Replication then proceeds in both directions creating

A

replication bubbles

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28
Q

DNA replication occurs in

A

5’ to 3’ direction

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29
Q

Replication is continuous on the

A

3’ to 5’ template

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30
Q

DNA polymerases

A

Add nucleotides only to the 3’ end of the strand

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31
Q

Replication is discontinuous on the

A

5’ to 3’ template, forming short Okazaki fragments

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32
Q

DNA Ligase

A

an enzyme that links Okazaki fragments together into a single DNA strand.

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33
Q

DNA specifies traits by

A

Dictating protein synthesis

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34
Q

What is the link between genotype and phenotype?

A

Proteins

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35
Q

Molecular chain of command

A

From DNA in the nucleus to RNA

RNA in the cytoplasm to protein

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36
Q

Transcription

A

The synthesis of RNA under the direction of DNA

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37
Q

Translation

A

The synthesis of proteins under the direction of RNA

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38
Q

What provide the instructions for making specific proteins?

A

Genes

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39
Q

The initial one gene - one enzyme hypothesis

A

Based on studies of inherited metabolic disease

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40
Q

The one gene - one enzyme hypothesis

A

Expanded to include all proteins

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41
Q

Many eukaryotic genes code for a set of polypeptides by a process called

A

Alternative splicing

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42
Q

The sequence of nucleotides in DNA provides a

A

Code for constructing a protein

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43
Q

Protein construction requires….

A

a conversion of a nucleotide sequence to an amino acid sequence

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44
Q

Transcription rewrites…

A

The DNA code into RNA but using the same nucleotide

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45
Q

The flow of information from gene to protein is based

A

Triplet code

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46
Q

The genetic instructions for the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide chain are written in….

A

DNA and RNA as a series of non-overlapping three-base “words” called codons.

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47
Q

Translation involves switching from the…

A

nucleotide “language” to the amino acid “language”

48
Q

Each amino acid is specified by

A

A codon

49
Q

How many codons are possible?

A

64

50
Q

Genetic Code

A

The amino acid translations of each of the nucleotide triplets

51
Q

How many nucleotides specify one amino acid?

A

3

52
Q

How many codons correspond to amino acids?

A

61

53
Q

What codes for methionine and signals the start of transcription?

A

AUG

54
Q

What signal the end of translation?

A

3 “stop” codons

55
Q

The genetic code is…

A

Redundant, unambiguous, and nearly universal

56
Q

Redundant

A

With more than one codon for some amino acids

57
Q

Unambiguous

A

Any codon for one amino acid does not code for any other amino acid

58
Q

Nearly Universal

A

The genetic code is shared by organisms from the simplest bacteria to the most complex plants and animals

59
Q

What are 3 stop codons?

A

UAA, UAG, and UGA

60
Q

What are the 3 steps of transcription?

A

Initiation, Elongation, and Termination

61
Q

Initiation

A

RNA synthesis begins after RNA polymerase attaches to the promoter.

62
Q

Elongation

A

Using the DNA as a template, RNA polymerase adds free RNA nucleotides one at a time.

63
Q

Termination

A

RNA synthesis ends when RNA polymerase reaches the terminator DNA sequence

64
Q

Messenger RNA (mRNA)

A
  1. encodes amino acid sequences

2. conveys genetic messages from DNA to the translation machinery of the cell.

65
Q

In prokaryotes,

A

mRNA can stay in the same place that it is made in order to convey genetic messages from DNA to the translation machinery of the cell

66
Q

In eukaryotes,

A

mRNA have to exit the nucleus via nuclear pores to enter the cytoplasm

67
Q

Eukaryotic mRNA has..

A

introns

68
Q

Introns are

A

interrupting sequences that separates exons

69
Q

Exons are

A

The coding regions.

70
Q

Eukaryotic mRNA undergoes….

A

processing before leaving the nucleus

71
Q

RNA splicing

A

Removes introns and joins exons to produce a continuous coding sequence.

72
Q

What are added to the ends of the mRNA?

A

A cap and tail of extra nucleotides

73
Q

Why are cap and tail of extra nucleotides added?

A
  1. to facilitate the export of the mRNA from the nucleus
  2. to protect the mRNA from degradation by cellular enzymes
  3. to help ribosomes bind to the mRNA
74
Q

T or F

The cap and tail themselves are not translated into protein

A

True

75
Q

Transfer RNA (tRNA)

A

Function as an interpreter, converting the genetic message of mRNA into the language of proteins.

76
Q

tRNA perform as an interpreter by

A
  1. Picking up the appropriate amino acid

2. Using anticodon to recognize the appropriate codons in the mRNA

77
Q

Translation occurs on….

A

The surface of the ribosome

78
Q

Ribosomes coordinate…

A
  1. The functioning of mRNA
  2. The functioning of tRNA
  3. The synthesis of polypeptides.
79
Q

How many subunits does ribosomes have?

A

2: small and large

80
Q

Each subunit is composed of…

A

ribosomal RNAs and proteins

81
Q

When do ribosomal subunits come together?

A

During translation

82
Q

For what do ribosomes have binding sites for?

A

for mRNA and tRNA

83
Q

T or F

The differences between the ribosomes of bacteria and eukaryotes are medically significant

A

True

84
Q

What drugs are used to combat bacterial infections?

A

Certain antibiotic drugs that can inactivate bacterial ribosomes while leaving eukaryotic ribosomes unaffected.

85
Q

What are 3 phases of translation?

A

Initiation, elongation, and termination

86
Q

Initiation brings together…

A
  1. mRNA
  2. a tRNA bearing the first amino acid
  3. the 2 subunits of a ribosome
87
Q

What establishes where translation begin?

A

Initiation

88
Q

How many steps does initiation goes through?

A

2 steps

89
Q

Step 1 for Initiation

A

An mRNA molecule binds to a small ribosomal subunit, and a special initiator tRNA binds to mRNA at the start codon.

90
Q

The first tRNA has what anticodon?

A

UAC

91
Q

Step 2 for initiation

A

A large ribosomal subunit joins the smal subunit, allowing the ribosome to function

92
Q

P site

A

Where the first tRNA is occupied and it hols the growing polypeptide

93
Q

A site

A

Available to receive the nest amino-acid-bearing tRNA

94
Q

Each cycle of elongation has….

A

3 steps

95
Q

1st step of Elongation

A

The anticodon of an incoming tRNA molecule, carrying its amino acid, pairs with the mRNA codon in the A site of the ribosome.

96
Q

2nd step of Elongation

A

The polypeptide separates from the tRNA in the P site and attaches by a new peptide bond to the amino acid carried by the tRNA in the A site

97
Q

3rd step of Elongation

A

The P site tRNA (now lacking an amino acid) leaves the ribosome, and the ribosome translocates (moves) the remaining tRNA (which has the growing polypeptide) from the A site to the P site.

98
Q

Elongation continues until the…

A

Termination stage of translation

99
Q

During the termination stage of translation…

A
  1. The ribosome reaches a stop codon
  2. The completed polypeptide is freed from the last tRNA
  3. The ribosome splits back into its separate subunits
100
Q

The flow of genetic information is from…

A

DNA to RNA to Protein

101
Q

In transcription, the mRNA is…

A

Synthesized on a DNA template.

102
Q

In eukaryotic cells, transcription occurs in…

A

the Nucleus, and the mRNA is processed before it travels to the cytoplasm

103
Q

In prokaryotes, transcription occurs in the…

A

Cytoplasm

104
Q

What are the 4 steps of translation?

A
  1. Amino Acid Attachment
  2. Initiation of polypeptide synthesis
  3. Elongation
  4. Termination
105
Q

Mutation

A

Any change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA

106
Q

Mutation can involve…

A
  1. Large chromosomal regions

2. Or just a single nucleotide pair

107
Q

Mutation can be divided into how many general categories?

A

2

108
Q

Nucleotide substitutions involve…

A

The replacement of one nucleotide and its base-pairing partner with another pair of nucleotides.

109
Q

Base substitutions may…..

A
  1. Have no effect at all
  2. Change the amino acid coding
  3. Change an amino acid into a stop codon
  4. Lead to a base substitution that produces an improved protein that enhances the success of the mutant organism and its descendants
110
Q

Silent Mutation

A

No effect at all

111
Q

Missense Mutation

A

Changing of amino acid coding that produces a different amino acid

112
Q

Nonsense Mutation

A

Changing an amino acid into a stop codon

113
Q

Nucleotide insertions or deletions of one or more nucleotides in a gene may….

A
  1. Cause a frameshift mutation
  2. Lead to a significant changes in amino acid sequence
  3. Produce a nonfunctional polypeptide
114
Q

Frameshift Mutation

A

Alters the reading frame (triplet grouping) of the genetic message

115
Q

Mutagenesis

A

The production of mutations

116
Q

Mutations can be caused by….

A
  1. Spontaneous errors that occur during DNA replication or recombination
  2. Mutagens
117
Q

Mutages

A

are high-energy radiation such as X-rays and ultraviolet light and chemicals.

Anatomy and Physiology (13 decks)

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