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Biology III > Cellular Mechanisms of Development > Flashcards

Cellular Mechanisms of Development Flashcards

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1
Q

Development

A

Gene directed changes of an organisms life cycle

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2
Q

4 sub-processes in development

A
  1. Cell division
  2. Differentiation
  3. Pattern Formation
  4. Morphogenesis
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3
Q

fertilization

A

process forms diploid zygote or the union of haploid egg + sperm

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4
Q

What happens after fertilization

A

diploid zygote undergoes rapid mitotic division or cleavage

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5
Q

What is the cell cycle and where does rapid mitotic division occur

A

G1, G0, S, G2, mitosis (mitotic division), cytokinesis

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6
Q

What is the cell cycle controlled by? Explain in general.

A

Cell cycle is controlled by proteins: cyclins, cyclin dependant kinases. They control timing and the number of cell divisions

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7
Q

Role of cyclin and cyclin-dependant kineses in adult cells and embryonic cells

A

adult cells: they control the cycle of mitosis through checkpoints (3, G1, S, G2)
Embryonic cells: inactivation and degradation of kinases allows cell to complete mitosis

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8
Q

what is the difference between the cell cyle of adult and embryonic cells

A

adult cells: 3 cyclin proteins are active, G1 and G2

Embryonic cells: 1 cyclin protein is active, NO G1 and G2 so shorter, cyclin degradation required to complete mitosis

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9
Q

Cleavage and in mammals

A

Rapid cell division

after fertilization, zygote divided in smaller cells called blastomeres

In mammals: several days, produces a ball of cells called blastocyst or blastula

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10
Q

Steps from fertilization to blastula

A

fertilized egg, 2-cell stage, 4-cell stage, 8-cell stage, morula (compact mass of cells, zygote with many cells, size doesnt change), blastula (hasnt grown but hollow), early gastrula, gastrula

egg first divided in 2 blastomeres, then 8 and more blastomeres

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11
Q

What does blastocyst or blastula made of

A
  1. Trophoblast: outer layer to form placenta
  2. Inner cell mass source of embryonic stem cells
  3. Empty space called blastocoel
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12
Q

Stem cells

A

cells capable of continued division, that can also give rise to differentiated cells (we can keep them forever, they have not differentiated yet)

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13
Q

Recap, sperm-egg to human embryo and when are stem cells set aside

A

sperm cell and egg cell join, cell cleavage produces blastocyst, inner cell mass develops into human embryo

embryonic stem cells isolated from inner cell mass and continues to divide while remaining undifferentiated

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14
Q

types of embryonic stem cells and where they are found

A
  1. Totipotent: can give rise any cell type in organism, in total zygote
  2. pluripotent: can give rise many different cell type, in inner cell mass
  3. Multipotent: can give rise limited # cell type, in many organs: specialization potential limited to 1 or more cell lines
    * Unipotent: can give rise 1 single cell type
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15
Q

Where are plant stem cells found and in what do they differentiate in

A

Meristems, they continually divide and differentiate into leaves, roots, branches and flowers.

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16
Q

In plants, in what are totipotent cells found in

A

Roots, leaves, shoots from undifferentiated cells

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17
Q

Do animal cells have to move for normal development?

A

Yes, this cell movement is called gastrulation

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18
Q

Do plant cells have to move for normal development?

A

No, they only change orientation of cell division to control cell proliferation

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19
Q

Gastrulation allows formation of 3 germ layers, whihc one will become the digestive system

A

ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm (this one)

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20
Q

What name is given to the cells that divide rapidly inside the embryo?

A

Blastomeres

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21
Q

What is the name that an early embryo receives on Day 4 of development?

A

Morula

22
Q

Explain how the blastocoel is formed during blastulation; name the layer of cells on the outside and the inside the blastocyst

A

The blastomeres are nourished by uterine milk going through the zona pellucida. The blastomeres keep dividing and the increase in uterine milk in the morula forms a fluid-filled cavity called blastocoel. The outer cell mass of the blastocyst is called the trophoblast and the inner cell mass is called the embryoblast.

23
Q

On the third week of development, what important embryonic process occurs that allows to form the three (3) germ layers?

A

Gastrulation

24
Q

What is the role of the primitive streak in gastrulation?

A

The primitive streak allows the cells to move from the outside to the inside of the blastocyst and form the three germ layers.

25
Q

Name the three structures that are formed during Neurulation

A

Neural plate, neural tube and neural crest

26
Q

steps early embryogenesis

A

fertilization (fusion egg-sperm), cleavage (rapit mitotic div), gastrulation (mvt cells to form 3 germ layers), neurolation (neural plate, tube, crest), embryonic folding

27
Q

What is cell differentiation and why does it happen

A

Cell differentiation=cell fate (cell undergoes changes to make plan happen) due to differential expression of genes

28
Q

Which types of cells have been used to study differentiation and what cells do they give rise to

A

Human pluripotent stem cells give rise to types of blood, cardiac muscle and neural cells

29
Q

What comes before differentiation, explain

A

determination: molecular decision to become particular type of cell or cell commits particular developmental pathway (cell determined to become something specific)

30
Q

What are 2 de developmental pathways in cell determination

A

cytoplasmic determinants (pigment granules act as cd and detremines the cells fate) and cell to cell interactions or induction (cells from germ layer receives chem signal (FGF factor) from cells found in another germ layer to induce diff cell types

31
Q

What happens to cells when not determined vs determined

A

during dev, cells moved to diff location in embryo. If they dev according to new position they are not determined (didnt have plan yet)

32
Q

Why can cloning occur based on cell differentiation

A

de-differentiation

33
Q

how does cloning occur

A

1 or more organism genetically identical to parent that donated single cell.

34
Q

what type of cell can generate a complete new organsim

A

Totipotent

35
Q

what is the frog embryo experiment

A

less differentiated cell in egg with donor nucleus

  • most develop in tadpoles
  • older donor nucleus results lower% normal dev
36
Q

what did dolly the sheep show, and what process was used on her

A

differentiation in animals is reversible

somatic cell nuclear transfer (from fully differentiated cell) (mammary cell fused with extracted egg cell by electric shock)

37
Q

problems of reproductive cloning

A

low success rate
age associated disease
lack of imprinting (not enough time to reprogram)

38
Q

nuclear reprogramming and 3 ways

A

reprogram adult cells to become pluripotent
1-fusion of es cells to differentiated somatic cells
2-culture of germ cells and adult stem cells after long time in culture
3-use specific transcription factors

39
Q

Steps of therapeutic cloning

A 
isisi
1-isolate skin cell
2-scnt
3-insert nucleus of skin cells in enucleated eggs
4-blastocyst grows
5-get rid embryo and use stem cells
6-stem cells induced to grow any tissue
40
Q

difference therapeutic cloning and reproductive cloning

A

see notes but same begining (theraapeutic take nucleus from diabetic patient), but therapeutic cloning instead of implantic blastocyst in uterus to have healthy cloned baby, the embryonic stem cels are grown in culture and implanted

41
Q

what is allowed in terms of cloning

A

stem cell reaearch in unimplanted embryos

42
Q

what 2 genetic pathways control the establishment of polarity in drosophilia

A

bicoid and nano proteins (anterior/posterior) and dorsal proteins (dorsal/ventral), they activate genes for formation body structures

43
Q

an example of master regulatory gene that when activated determines a structure

A

Hox genes, gene that controls development of particular body part

44
Q

predominant homeotic gene family in plants

A

MADS-boxgenes: for root and floral development

45
Q

stages of early embryogenesis

A

fertilization, cleavage, gastrulation, neurulation, embryonic floding and organogenesis

46
Q

what happens after cleavage

A

rate of ell division slows and normal cell cycle restored

47
Q

Morphogenesis

A

process by which cells occupy appropriate location: includes gastrulation (mvt cells from surface to interior embryo) and organogenesis (formation of organs)

48
Q

Gastrulation

A

rearranges cell, by mvt from surface to interior, into 3 layered embryo called gastrula: ectoderm-endoderm-mesoderm

49
Q

3 germ layers and where

A

ectoderm: outer layer
endoderm: lines digestive tract
mesoderm: partly fills space between ectoderm and endoderm

50
Q

programmed cell death

A

cells shrivel and shrink during apoptosis: planned through genetic control

Biology III (14 decks)

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