Cell pathology 1-2 Flashcards
What is oedema?
An abnormal increase in interstitial fluid causing swelling.
What can cause oedema? (5)
- Increased hydrostatic pressure
- Lymphatic obstruction
- Increased salt retention (therefore increased water reabsorption)
- Reduced plasma oncotic pressure
- Inflammation
What is generalised oedema?
Fluid found in serious cavities
What can cause generalised oedema? (3)
- Left heart failure
- Venous hypertension
- Lymphatic obstruction
What are the two types of localised oedema?
Pulmonary and cerebral
What can cause localised oedema? (3)
- Congestive heart failure
- Nutritional oedema
- Hypoproteinaemia
What is pulmonary oedema?
Excess fluid in interstitial space which overflows into alveolar space.
What can pulmonary oedema lead to?
Bacterial infection
Symptoms of pulmonary oedema?
Breathlessness, made worse when lying down flat
What causes pulmonary oedema?
Plasma oncotic pressure is lower than hydrostatic pressure in pulmonary capillaries.
What is thrombosis?
An abnormal blood clot formation in the circulatory system
What is the most common complication of venous thrombosis?
Pulmonary embolism
What is venous thrombosis caused by?
Stasis and hypercoagulability
What is arterial thrombosis caused by?
Mostly atherosclerotic plaques
What is the most common complication of arterial thrombosis?
Infarction and tissue death
What is an embolus?
Abnormal material within the circulatory system which has been carried by the blood to a site distant from its site of origin.
What are examples of emboli? (4)
- Fat
- Air
- Amniotic fluid
- Tumour
What is an infarct?
An area of ischaemic necrosis caused by occlusion of either arterial supply or venous drainage.
What is a red infarct?
Venous occlusion
What is a white infarct?
Arterial occlusion. Also known as an anaemic infarct.
What is haemorrhage?
Extravasation of a vessel due to rupture leading to hypovolaemia.
What are two common causes of haemorrhage?
AAAs and brainstem haemorrhage.
What is hypovolaemic shock?
When the blood has lost too much blood volume. Remaining blood is redirected to most important organs such as the heart, kidneys, brain and skin.
What is cariogenic shock?
When the heart can’t pump enough blood. This has a high mortality rate.
What does septic shock result in?
organ dysfunction, ischaemic tissue and multi-organ failure
What cell types are involved in inflammation? (6)
- Neutrophils
- Macrophages
- Lymphocytes
- Eosinophils
- Basophils
- Mast cells
Which two cell types are most important in inflammation and why?
Macrophages and neutrophils because they can perform phagocytosis and recruitment of other cells by mediator release.
What is acute inflammation?
Rapid, non-specific response orchestrated by mediators that have been released by the injured cells.
What is chronic inflammation?
Persistent inflammation response which can arise from acute inflammation.
What are the cardinal signs of inflammation? (5)
1) Rubor - redness
2) Dolor - pain
3) Calor - heat
4) Swelling
5) Loss of function
What occurs to microvasculature at the site of injury?
Vasodilation and increase in blood flow by mediators such as histamine and nitric oxice. Further increase in permeability.
What is exudate?
A mass of cells and fluid that has leaked out of blood vessels.
What are the four characteristic signs of exudate?
- High protein content
- May be purulent (leukocyte rich)
- High specific gravity
- Contains cells and cell debris
What is transudate?
Ultrafiltrate of blood plasma caused by increased hydrostatic pressure or reduced oncotic pressure. Only water moves out of the blood vessel though as the plasma proteins are too large.
What are the three characteristic signs of transudate?
- Low protein content
- Low specific gravity
- Low cell content
What can degradation of microbes give rise to? (3)
- Reactive oxygen species
- Lysozyme
- Lactoferrin
What is lactoferrin?
Multi-functional protein that prevent bacterial reproduction.
Where is histamine produced? (3)
Basophils, mast cells and platelets.
What does histamine do? (3)
- Vasodilation
- Increased vasculature permeability
- Endothelial activation
Where are prostaglandins produced? (2)
Mast cells and leukocytes
What do prostaglandins do?
Vasodilation, fever and pain symptoms.
Where are chemokine produced? (2)
Leukocytes and activated macrophages.
What do chemokine do?
Chemotaxis and leukocyte activation.
What do cytokines do?
Fever, pain and malaise symptoms and endothelial activation.
Where are cytokines produced?
Macrophages, endothelial cells and mast cells.
Examples of cytokines?
TNF and IL-1
Where are complement factors made?
Liver
What do complement factors do?
Vasodilation and opsonisation.
What is granuloma?
An aggregate of activated macrophages in an attempt to eliminate a resistant offending agent.
What things can impair wound healing? (6)
1) Poor nutrition
2) Vitamin and mineral deficiency
3) Poor local blood supply
4) Movement
5) Suppressed inflammation (steroid use and age)
5
6) Persistent foreign body
