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Geography Human Alevel > ✅Case Study - Antarctica as a Global Common > Flashcards

✅Case Study - Antarctica as a Global Common Flashcards

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1
Q

What does Antarctica store?

A

Most of the world’s fresh water

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2
Q

How does the continent change in winter?

A

It doubles in size

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3
Q

When was Antarctica discovered?

A

In 1821, by sealers

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4
Q

When was the heroic exploration of Antarctica?

A

1895-1922

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5
Q

What is an ice sheet?

A

Results from small inputs of snow and frost (exceeding ablation rates) over a very long time

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6
Q

What is ablation?

A

The opposite of accumulation, refers to all processes that remove snow, ice and water from the glacier or snowfield

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7
Q

What is a nunatack?

A

An exposed, rocky element of a ridge, mountain or peak not covered by snow or ice within or at the edge of an ice field or glacier. Also know as glacial islands

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8
Q

What is the Antarctic convergence zone?

A

A natural boundary separating two distinct hydrological regions/ areas of distinct climate

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9
Q

Why do Antarctic waters freeze at such low temperatures?

A

Because they are so salty

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10
Q

What happens at the Antarctic convergence zone?

A

Warm surface water and cold antarctic water meet

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11
Q

What is global thermohaline circulation?

A

When water moves along gradients

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12
Q

How does water have a tendency to move?

A

From warm to colder areas

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13
Q

How much of the land is ice free?

A

Less than 5%

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14
Q

What do mean winter temperatures range from?

A

-9 to -68 degrees C

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15
Q

What are claims of Antarctic land founded on?

A

Discovery and exploration of areas
Proximity to Antarctica
Seeking control of natural resources

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16
Q

When was the Antarctic Treaty created?

A

1959

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17
Q

How many countries have now signed the treaty?

A

46

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18
Q

What are the main intentions of the treaty?

A

Antarctica shall be used for peaceful purposes only
Antarctica should be a site of scientific investigation
No nation would be obligated to surrender its claim, and no new claim could be made

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19
Q

What does the environmental protocol of the treaty state?

A

Commits the parties to comprehensive protection of the Antarctic environment
Designates Antarctica as a natural reserve devoted to peace and science
Bans all commercial mineral resource activity
Requires assessment of impacts of any activities

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20
Q

When will the environmental protocol be revised?

A

2048

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21
Q

How many environmental NGOs work in coalition to protect Antarctica?

A

Over 1000

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22
Q

What human activities threaten Antarctica?

A

Scientific research
Mineral exploitation
Fisheries
Tourism

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23
Q

How many permanent scientific bases exist on Antarctica?

A

40

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24
Q

How can scientific research threaten the environment?

A

In 1989, an Argentine ship ran aground and released 25,000 gallons of fuel into the sea. Similar events have occurred at Russian and US bases

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25
Q

Where have coal seams been discovered?

A

Along the coastline and in the mountains

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26
Q

Why has activity at coals seams so far been deterred?

A

It isn’t commercially viable, but may be needed fr future demand

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27
Q

Where has a great potential for oil?

A

The Weddel and Ross seas, on the continental shelf

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28
Q

How many barrels of oil are estimated to be in the Weddel and Ross seas?

A

50 billion

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29
Q

What is the only large scale exploitation in Antarctica?

A

Fishing

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30
Q

What are the impacts of fishing in Antarctica?

A

Over-fishing of target species
Effects on species that depend on target species
Killing of other species accidentally caught
Destruction of habitat by equipment

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31
Q

What is the biggest species of concern in Antarctic fisheries?

A

Krill

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32
Q

Why are krill such an important species?

A

They feed on phytoplankton, and are then eaten by a wide range of species

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33
Q

What has been put down to the over fishing of Krill?

A

The decline in some penguin species

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34
Q

Why is Krill being fished?

A

It is used as feed on salmon farms and their enzymes have pharmaceutical uses

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35
Q

What is CCAMLR?

A

Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources

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36
Q

What do CCAMLR do?

A

Control the commercial fisheries in the Southern Ocean, taking into account the species being fished and their prey and predator species. They monitor all fishing in the region

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37
Q

What must all vessels in the CCAMLR region participate in?

A

Monitoring systems to report krill catches

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38
Q

Why are pharmaceutical companies interest in Antarctic species?

A

For their anti-freeze proteins in the blood, and for how fish slow their heartbeat to save energy in cold environments

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39
Q

Who banned whaling in the Antarctic?

A

The International Whaling Commission

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40
Q

What is the limit of viability?

A

The amount of meltwater an ice shelf can take before it begins to weaken and retreat

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41
Q

What area does the Antarctic Treaty apply to?

A

60 degrees south

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42
Q

What does the Treaty not apply to?

A

The seas

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43
Q

When was the Whaling Moratorium introduced?

A

1982

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44
Q

How were whales previously hunted?

A

Using harpoons and specialist whaling boats

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45
Q

What did Greenpeace do for Antarctic whales?

A

They launched an anti-whaling campaign shortly after the organisation formed, and Greenpeace ships began confronting whaling fleets

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46
Q

Which countries ignore the moratorium?

A

Japan, Iceland and Norway

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47
Q

How many whales does Japan hunt each year for ‘research’?

A

300

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48
Q

How much money can 1 whale make?

A

$1 million

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49
Q

When was the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary set up?

A

1994

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50
Q

Who set up the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary?

A

The International Whaling Commission

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51
Q

What is the aim of the whale sanctuary?

A

To benefit the long term conservation of whales

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52
Q

How does the sanctuary benefit whales?

A

By facilitating recovery of depleted whale populations by protecting important areas

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53
Q

How does the whale sanctuary benefit surrounding nations economically?

A

Provides economic benefits to range of states by providing opportunities to develop non-lethal economic uses of ecotourism and whale watching

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54
Q

How has scientific whaling changed over the years?

A

It has increased

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55
Q

What is the Madrid Protocol?

A

The protocol on environmental protection for the Antarctic treaty, protects natural reserves

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56
Q

How successful has the Madrid protocol been?

A

Mining is prohibited and minerals are protected, so the environment is preserved, and toxic chemicals are prohibited from being discharged into the sea

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57
Q

Why is the Madrid protocol needed?

A

To provide comprehensive protection for the environment after Russian bases were dumping waste

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58
Q

How many parties have agreed to the Madrid Protocol?

A

34, with a further 11 signed but not ratified

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59
Q

What is the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals?

A

A convention for promoting and achieving the protection, scientific study and rational use of seals

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60
Q

When did the seal convention come into place?

A

1978, after seals were killed by clubbing for their pelts, young seals wanted

61
Q

What has happened since the seal convention came into place?

A

Seal populations have recovered, proof that CCAS is a successful international agreement

62
Q

Why is the seal convention needed?

A

To recognise that the stocks of Antarctic seals are an important living resource and should not be exploited and depleted

63
Q

How many parties have agreed to the seal convention?

A

17

64
Q

What is the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources?

A

An international convention with the objective of conserving Antarctic marine life, in response to increasing commercial interest in krill

65
Q

When was the Conservation of Marine Living Resources brought in?

A

1982, the same year as the whaling ban

66
Q

How successful has CCAMLR been?

A

Seabird mortality has been reduced, protected areas have been established, vulnerable ecosystems managed and challenges of illegal fishing addressed

67
Q

Why was CCAMLR set up?

A

Because there was increasing commercial interest in krill

68
Q

Who enforces CCAMLR?

A

All vessels are monitored and the policy is implemented by all 25 countries

69
Q

What is ASOC?

A

Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition

70
Q

Who does ASOC represent?

A

Brings together more than 30 groups so has a wide scope, includes WWF and Wildlife Organisations

71
Q

Why was ASOC set up?

A

A US lawyer exposed a secret minerals framework for Antarctica

72
Q

What categories are ASOC’s current works split into?

A

Environmental Protection
Wildlife Conservation
Antarctic Governance

73
Q

How does ASOC plan to tackle Antarctic climate change issues?

A

Through public advocacy, promoting adaptation strategies, and climate science

74
Q

What do ASOC seek in terms of protection?

A

The highest possible level of environmental protection for the Antarctic region and for all wildlife

75
Q

Which area do ASOC want to be protected?

A

The Ross Sea and areas for species such as Minke whales and Krill

76
Q

How important is ASOC’s work in the Ross Sea?

A

It is striving for it to be a Marine Protected Area and maintaining its diversity and abundant marine life. Almost untouched as it was thousands of years ago, preserved

77
Q

Antarctica is the driest continent because…

A

Its’ annual precipitation is 50mm- polar desert

78
Q

Antarctica is the windiest continent because…

A

Smooth Antarctic surface allows for fast winds not slowed by surface friction

79
Q

Antarctica is the coldest continent because…

A

Average temperature is -49oc (feels colder due to wind chill)

80
Q

Why does the Antarctic Convergence Zone vary seasonally?

A

Due to the expansion and contraction of sea ice

81
Q

Thermohaline Circulation

A

Salt water moving along gradients creates the global thermohaline circulation
Water moves from hot to cold (convection)
Changes in salinity accelerate these changes

82
Q

2 main factors that have increased the threat Antarctica faces

A

Technology- we can now get there
Greater demand for resources- exploiting Antarctica is now economically viable

83
Q

What are the 4 main threats Antarctica faces?

A

Climate Change
Fishing and Whaling
Mineral Exploitation
Tourism and Scientific Research

84
Q

Climate Change: Which parts of Antarctica are cooling?
Which parts aren’t?

A

East cooling- not near the coastal parts (ocean a radiator)
West melting- likely the East will grow as the West melts

85
Q

Climate Change: What is the melting of the Antarctic Peninsula causing?

A

Positive dieback- loss of ice shelves has caused ice to speed up in land

86
Q

Climate Change: How many tonnes of ice have been lost each year since 1993?
By how much have global sea levels increased as a result?

A

100 billion tonnes each year
Increased global sea levels by 0.2mm a year

87
Q

Climate Change: What will partly offset the increase in the rate of ice melt?

A

Increased snow fall

88
Q

Climate Change: By how much has Southern Ocean temperatures increased since 1995?

A

1C

89
Q

Climate Change: What impacts has the Southern Ocean warming more quickly that the oceans globally had?

A

Changed distribution of penguin colonies
Krill populations fallen by up to 80% in last 40 years
Melting snow = increased plant colonisation
Ocean acidification

90
Q

Climate Change: Although the melting of ice shelves doesn’t contribute to sea level rise, how do they cause it?

A

Rate of flow of glaciers behind the ice shelves increases
These glaciers melt = sea level rise

91
Q

Climate Change: Why might sea ice be expanding on the eastern side of Antarctica?

A

More snow and rain layering Southern Ocean with a cooler, denser top
More storms = local waters less salty, raises temp. of ice formation
Melting of continental land ice = icebergs- contributes to sea ice formation

92
Q

Climate Change: What is the problem with the carbonic acid that would be created with increased atmospheric carbon dioxide?

A

Oceans would become a little more acidic
Could potentially corrode unprotected shells and skeletons- problems with food chain

93
Q

Climate Change: Why would some argue global trade/ globalisation was responsible for climate change?

A

Global trade has increased movement of goods- increased fossil fuel consumption
(Antarctica doesn’t benefit from this trade at all, it is instead impacted by the pollution and waste generated from the trade)

94
Q

Fishing and Whaling: Why are krill so heavily fished around Antarctica?

A

Fishing restrictions implemented in Northern Hemisphere
2007, catch allowance increased by nearly 600%

95
Q

Fishing and Whaling: Problems with over fishing of krill?

A

Impacts food chain
Increases phytoplankton

96
Q

Fishing and Whaling: When did whaling begin in this area?

A

1904

97
Q

Fishing and Whaling: Where was the whale processing station located?

A

South Georgia

98
Q

Fishing and Whaling: When was commercial whaling banned?

A

1986

99
Q

Mineral Exploitation: Where is there a large amount of coal?

A

On the coast and in the mountains

100
Q

Mineral Exploitation: How many barrels of oil do the Ross and Weddell Seas combined hold?

A

50 billion barrels of oil

101
Q

Mineral Exploitation: Demand for minerals could cause global ____ in the future

A

Conflict
Many countries already put in claims as safeguard measures

102
Q

Tourism and Scientific Research: How many permanent scientific bases are there?

A

40
Means resources have to be flown or shipped in

103
Q

Tourism and Scientific Research: What happened with the Argentine navy transport ship in the late 20th century?

A

It ran aground
Released 250,000 gallons of fuel
Sea birds and krill were killed
(This was a relatively contained oil spill)

104
Q

Tourism and Scientific Research: What disturbs bird populations?
What will worsen this?

A

Planes
Will be worsened if Australia opened their runway for tourism

105
Q

Tourism and Scientific Research: What are the risks posed from tourism?

A

Contamination and spread of disease
Due to tourist numbers increasing, and little management (as not owned by one nation)

106
Q

Tourism and Scientific Research: What’s a positive of tourism?

A

Some profits from cruises donated to NGO’s
Helps protect Antarctica in the future

107
Q

When was the Antarctic Treaty signed, and enforced from?

A

1959, enforced from 1961

108
Q

Key points from Antarctica Treaty articles

A

Sustainable management of Antarctica’s ecosystems
Regarded as most successful piece of legislation

109
Q

What is the Antarctic Treaty System?

A

A combination of the Antarctic Treaty and other related systems
They hold annual meetings

110
Q

IWC: What caused the issue of whaling to be first publicly broadcast?
How did the public respond?

A

Greenpeace protesters confronting whaling fleets on the high seas
Demand for whale began to rapidly reduce

111
Q

IWC: What is the purpose of the International Whaling Commission?

A

Intergovernmental Organisation
Regulates whaling, ensures whale populations are at sustainable levels
Imposed Global Whaling Moratorium

112
Q

IWC: When was the global whaling moratorium imposed?
When are whales still allowed to be killed?

A

1982
For scientific purposes

113
Q

IWC: Advantages of the moratorium?

A

Everyone in whaling industry lost out equally- no bias
Whale populations have been able to recover
Easy to spot someone whaling
Raises awareness

114
Q

IWC: Disadvantages of the moratorium?

A

Hard to monitor the whole of the Southern Ocean
Some argue that everyone has the right to use Antarctica as it is a global common
Greenpeace argues poorly enforced

115
Q

IWC: Problems of Japan’s abuse of the system

A

Other nations may follow
Around 300 whales killed each year

116
Q

IWC: When was the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary established?

A

1994

117
Q

IWC: Why was the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary established?

A

Provide whales with a refuge from whaling
Allows species to recover from serious overexploitation

118
Q

IWC: Long term aims of the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary

A

Develop non-lethal research
Provide economic benefits i.e. whale watching
Increase public awareness of the vulnerability of marine ecosystems
Allow whale populations to recover by protecting their feeding and breeding grounds

119
Q

IWC: Successes of the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary

A

Covers most of the Southern Ocean
Non-lethal research means less whales need to be killed in the future
Raises public awareness
Protects feeding and breeding grounds
Finds other economic uses for whales- gives ex-whalers a job

120
Q

IWC: Failures of the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary

A

Hasn’t stopped Japan as doesn’t protect against scientific whaling
Doesn’t protect whales outside the protection area
Difficult to monitor such a large area
Only protects areas that are important now which may change with climate change, leaving whales unprotected

121
Q

Why have NGO’s like SCAR and ASOC been set up?

A

Do the work governments can’t/ won’t do
Don’t have an agenda

122
Q

Purpose of Scientific Committee on Antarctica Research

A

In charge of initiation, promotion, and co-ordination of research on Antarctica
Provide independent scientific advice to inform the Antarctic Treaty System

123
Q

ASOC: Why was the Antarctica and Southern Ocean Coalition set up?
When was it set up?

A

Created so NGO’s could have a greater influence on governments at the world stage
1978

124
Q

ASOC: Examples of NGOs involved

A

Over 30, including:
WWF
Greenpeace
Friends of the Earth

125
Q

ASOC: What does their work mainly focus on?

A

Environmental protection
Monitors environmental change
Ensures legislation is being kept to

126
Q

ASOC: What 3 main campaigns is it currently focusing on?

A

Sustainable management of Southern Ocean Fisheries
Establishing a network of marine reserves, including Marine Protected Area status for the Ross Sea
Negotiating a legally binding Polar Code covering all vessels operating in the Southern Ocean

127
Q

ASOC: Successes

A

Only NGO working full time to preserve Antarctica and the Southern Ocean
Powerful as it consists of over 30 NGOs
Helps raise public awareness about threats to Antarctica and encourages government involvement

128
Q

ASOC: Failures

A

Difficult to monitor the whole of the large area they protect
Work on a lot of projects- don’t focus all of their energy in one place

129
Q

ASOC: Why are they so interested in protecting the Ross Sea?

A

Important for the diverse ecosystem present
50% of Ross Sea killer whales

130
Q

What percentage of freshwater does Antarctica store?

A

70%

131
Q

What are some of the ‘rules’ of the Antarctic Treaty?

A

Only peaceful reasons- no army bases/ weapons
Cooperation on scientific research- avoids unnecessary scientific research
Should remain as a global commons- countries cannot make individual claims
Doesn’t apply to seas… overexploitation likely

132
Q

Which organisations make up the Antarctic Treaty System?

A

International Whaling Commission
United Nations Environment Programme

133
Q

United Nations Environment Programme Key Points

A

Reports activity in Antarctica to UN
Aims to stop illegal fishing and converse ecosystem- protected areas
Limited by countries i.e. Russia

134
Q

Piece of legislation protecting Minerals

A

1991 Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctica Treaty

135
Q

1991 Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctica Treaty key points

A

Banned all mining
Rules on….
Regulating waste disposal
Preventing pollution
Protecting plants and animals- environmental impact assessment required before new activities conducted

136
Q

Why is it difficult to prevent the damage caused?

A

Most damage not caused in Antarctica
i.e. Pollution or ghg’s

137
Q

What activities are their for tourists

A

. Hiking
. Ice climbing
. Kayaking
. Scuba diving

138
Q

What % of tourists are American

A

34%

139
Q

What is staff to passenger ratio

A

1:20

140
Q

What % of previous experience must guides have

A

75%

141
Q

What % fly directly to the centre

A

1%

142
Q

How much for a luxury stay in Antarctica

A

£84,000

143
Q

What is the max carrying capacity for vessels

A

500

144
Q

What is distance should tourists be from animals

A

5-100m

145
Q

What is distance should vehicles be from animals

A

200m

146
Q

What is the max number of people onshore

A

100

147
Q

What is the max number of small boats that can land at a time

A

5

148
Q

How many small boat landings a day

A

1-3

Geography Human Alevel (61 decks)

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