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Human Geography: Global Governance + Systems > 🌍 ✅CASE STUDY - Antarctica > Flashcards

🌍 ✅CASE STUDY - Antarctica Flashcards

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1
Q

What does Antarctica store?

A

60% of the worlds fresh water

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2
Q

How does the continent change in winter?

A

It doubles in size

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3
Q

When was Antarctica discovered?

A

By 1821, by sealers

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4
Q

When was the heroic exploration of Antarctica?

A

1895-1922

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5
Q

What is an ice sheet?

A

Results from small inputs of snow and frost (exceeding ablation rates) over a very long time

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6
Q

What is ablation?

A

The opposite of accumulation, refers to all processes that remove snow, ice and water from the glacier or snowfield

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7
Q

What is a nunataks?

A

An exposed, rock element of a ridge, mountain or peak not covered by snow or ice within or at the edge of an ice field or glacier.
Also known as GLACIAL ISLANDS

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8
Q

What is the Antarctic convergence zone?

A

A natural boundary separating 2 distinct hydrological regions/ areas of distinct climate

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9
Q

Why do Antarctic waters freeze at such low temperatures?

A

Because they are so salty

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10
Q

What happens at the Antarctic convergence zone?

A

Warm surface water and cold Antarctic water meet

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11
Q

What is global thermohaline circulation?

A

When water moves along gradients

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12
Q

How does water have a tendency to move?

A

From warm to colder areas

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13
Q

How much of the land is ice free?

A

Less that 5%

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14
Q

what do mean winters range from?

A

-9 to -68 degrees C

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15
Q

What are claims of Antarctica land founded on?

A
  • Discovery and exploration of areas
  • Proximity to Antarctica
  • Seeking control of natural resources
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16
Q

When was the Antarctica Treaty created?

A

1959, enforced from 1961

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17
Q

How many countries have now signed the treaty?

A

46

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18
Q

WHat IS the Antarctic Treaty System?

A

A combination of the Antarctic Treaty and other related systems
- hold anual meetings

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19
Q

What are the main intentions of the treaty?

A

-Antarctica shall be used for peaceful purposes only
-Antarctica should be a site of scientific investigation
-No nation would be obligated to surrender its claim, and no new claim could be made
REGARDED AS MOST SUCCESFUL PIECE OF LEGISLATION

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20
Q

What does the environmental protocol of the treaty state?

A
  • Commits the parties to comprehensive protection of the Antarctic environment
  • Designated Antarctica as a natural reserve devoted to peace and science
  • Bans all commercial mineral resource activity
  • Requires assessment of impacts of any activities
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21
Q

when will the environment protocol be revised?

A

2048

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22
Q

How many environmental NGOs work in coalition to protect Antarctica?

A

Over 1000

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23
Q

What human activities threaten Antarctica?

A

Scientific research
Mineral exploitation
Fisheries + whaling
Tourism

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24
Q

How many permanent scientific bases exist on Antarctica?

A

40 - means of resources flown or shipped in

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25
Q

How has scientific research threatened the environment?

A

In 1989, an Argentine ship ran around and released 25,000 gallons of fuel into the sea.
Similar events have occurred at Russians and US bases

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26
Q

Where have coal seams been discovered?

A

Along coastline and in the mountains

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27
Q

Why has activity at coal seams so far been deterred?

A

It isn’t commercially viable, but may be needed for future demand

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28
Q

Where has a great potential for oil?

A

The Weddel and Ross seas, on the continental shelf

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29
Q

How many barrels of oil are estimated to be in the Weddel and Ross seas?

A

50 bn

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30
Q

What is the only large scale exploitation in Antarctica?

A

Fishing

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31
Q

What are the impacts of fishing in Antarctica?

A
  • Over-fishing of target species
  • Effects on species that depend on target species
  • Killing of other species accidentally caught
  • Destruction of habitat by equipment
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32
Q

what is the biggest species of concern in Antarctic fisheries?

A

Krill

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33
Q

Why are krill such an important species?

A

they feed on phytoplankton, and are then eaten by a wide range of species

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34
Q

what has declined due to the over fishing of krill?

A

the decline in some penguin

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35
Q

Why is krill being fished?

A

It is used to feed salmon farms and their enzymes have pharmaceutical uses

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36
Q

What is CCAMLR?

A

Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources

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37
Q

What do CCAMLR do?

A

Control the commercial fisheries in the Southern Ocean, taking into account the species being fished and their prey and predator species. They monitor all fishing in the region

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38
Q

What must all vessels in the CCAMLR region participate in?

A

Monitoring systems to report krill catches

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39
Q

Why are pharmaceutical companies interest in Antarctic species?

A

For their anti-freeze protein in their blood, and for how fish slow their heartbeat to save energy in cold environments

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40
Q

Who banned whaling in the Antarctic?

A

the International Whaling Commission

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41
Q

What is the limit of viability?

A

The amount of meltwater an ice shelf can take before it begins to weaken and retreat

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42
Q

What area does the Antarctic Treaty apply to?

A

60 degrees south

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43
Q

What does the Treaty not apply to?

A

the seas

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44
Q

When was the Whaling Moratorium introduced?

A

1982

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45
Q

How were whales previously hunted?

A

Using harpoons and specialist whaling boats

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46
Q

What did Greenpeace do for Antarctic whales?

A

they launched an anti-whaling campaign shortly after the organisation formed, and Greenpeace ships began confronting whaling fleets -demand for whales began to rapidly decrease

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47
Q

Which countries ignore the moratorium?

A

Japan
Iceland
Norway

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48
Q

How many whales does Japan hunt each year for “research”?

A

300

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49
Q

How much money can 1 whale make?

A

$1 million

50
Q

When was the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary set up?

A

1994

51
Q

Who set up the Southern Ocean Whale sanctuary?

A

The International Whaling Commission

52
Q

What is the aim of the whale sanctuary?

A

To benefit the long term conservation of whales

53
Q

How does the whale sanctuary benefit whales?

A

By facilitating recovery of depleted whale populations by protecting important areas

54
Q

How does the whale sanctuary benefit surrounding nations economically?

A

Provides economic benefits to range of states by providing opportunities to develop non-lethal economic use of ecotourism and whale watching

55
Q

How has scientific whaling changed over the years?

A

It has increased

56
Q

What is the Madrid Protocol?

A

The protocol on environmental protection for the Antarctic treaty, protects natural reserves

57
Q

How successful has the Madrid protocol been?

A

Mining is prohibited and minerals are protected, so the environment is preserved, and toxic chemical are prohibited from being discharges into the sea

58
Q

Why is the Madrid protocol needed?

A

To provide comprehensive protection for the environment after Russian bases were dumping waste

59
Q

How many parties have agreed to the Madrid Protocol?

A

34, with a further 11 signed but not ratified

60
Q

What is the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals?

A

A convention for promoting and achieving the protection, scientific study and rational use of seals

61
Q

When did the seal convention come into place?

A

1978
After seals were killed by clubbing for their pelts, young seals wanted

62
Q

What has happened since the seal convention came into place?

A

Seal populations have recovered, proof that’s CCAS is a successful international agreement

63
Q

why is the seal convention needed?

A

To recognise that the stocks of Antarctic seals are an important living resource and should not be exploited and depleted

64
Q

How many parties have agreed to the seal convention?

A

17

65
Q

What is the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources?

A

An international convention with the objectives of conserving Antarctic marine life, in response to increasing commercial interest in krill

66
Q

When was the Conservation of Marine Living resources brought in?

A

1982
The same year as the whaling ban

67
Q

How successful has CCAMLR been?

A

seabird mortality has been reduced, protected areas have been established, vulnerable ecosystems managed and challenges of illegal fishing addressed

68
Q

Why was CCAMLR set up?

A

Because there was increasing commercial interest in krill

69
Q

Who enforces CCAMLR?

A

All vessels are monitored and the policy is implemented by all 25 countries

70
Q

What is ASOC?

A

Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition

71
Q

Who does ASOC represent?

A

Brings together 30+ groups = a wide scope, includes WWF and Wildlife Organisations

72
Q

Why was ASOC set up?

A

A US lawyer exposed a secret minerals framework for Antarctica

73
Q

What categories are ASOC’s current works split into?

A
  • Environmental Protection
  • Wildlife Conservation
  • Antarctic Governance
74
Q

How does ASOC plan to tackle Antarctic climate change issues?

A

Through public advocacy, promoting adaptation strategies, and climate science

75
Q

What do ASOC seek in terms of protection?

A

the highest possible level of environmental protection for the Antarctic region and for all wildlife

76
Q

Which area do ASOC want to be protected?

A

The Ross Sea and areas for species such as Minkle whales and krill

77
Q

How important is ASOC’s work in the Ross Sea?

A

It is striving for it to be a Marine Protected Area and maintaining its diversity and abundant marine life. Almost untouched as it was thousands of years ago, preserved

78
Q

Antarctiva is the driest continent because…

A

Its anual precipitation is 50mm - polar desert

79
Q

Antarctica is the windiest continent because…

A

SMooth Antarctica surface allows for fast winds not slowed by surface friction

80
Q

Antarctica is the coldest continent because…

A

Avg temperature is -49oC (feels colder due to wind chill)

81
Q

WHy does the ANtacrtic Convergence Zone vary seasonally?

A

Due to the expansion and contraction of sea ice

82
Q

2 main factors have increased the threat Antarctica faces

A

Technology - we can now get there
Greater demand for resources - exploiting Antarctica is now economically viable

83
Q

What are the 4 main threats Antarctica faces?

A

Climate change
Fishing and Whaling
Mineral Exploitation
Tourism and SCientifc Research

84
Q

CLIMATE CHANGE: Which parts of Antarctia are cooling - which parts aren’t?

A

East cooling - not near the coastal parts (ocean a radiator)
West melting - likely the East will grow as the West melts

85
Q

CLIMATE CHANGE: What is the melting of the Antarctic Penisula causing?

A

Positive dieback - loss of ice sheleves has caused ice to speed up in land

86
Q

CLIMATE CHANGE: How many tonnes of ice gave been lost each year since 1993 - impact on gobal sea levels?

A

100 bn tonnes each year
Increased global sea levels by 0.2mm a year

87
Q

CLIMATE CHANGE: What will partly offset the increase in the rate of ice melt?

A

Increased snow fall

88
Q

CLIMATE CHANGE: By how much has the Southern Ocean temperatures increased since 1995?

A

1C

89
Q

CLIMATE CHANGE: What impacts has the Southern Ocean warming more quickly that the oceans globally had?

A
  • Changed distribution of penguin colonies
  • Krill populations fallen by up to 80% in last 40 years
  • Melting snow = increased plant colonialisation
  • Ocean acidification
90
Q

CLIMATE CHANGE: Althrough the melting of ice shelves doesnt contribute to sea level rise, how do they cause it?

A

Rate of flow of glaciers behind the ice shelves increases
These glaciers melt = sea levels rise

91
Q

CLIMATE CHANGE: Why might sea ice be expanding on the eastern side of Antarctica?

A

More snow and rain layering Southern Ocean with a cooler, denser top
More storms = local waters less salty, raises temp of ice formation
Melting of continental land ice = icebergs - contributes to sea ice formation

92
Q

CLIMATE CHANGE: What is the problem with carbonic acid that would be created with increased atmospheric carbon dioxide?

A

Oceans would become a little more acidic
Could potentially corrode unprotected shells and skeletons - problems with food chain

93
Q

CLIMATE CHANGE: Why wou ld some argue global trade/ globalisation was reponsidble for climate change?

A

Global trade has increased the movement of goods - increased fossil fuel consumption
(Antarctica doesn’t benifit from this trade AT ALL, it is instead impacted by the pollution and waste generated from the trade)

94
Q

FISHING AND WHALING: Why are krill so heavily fished around Antarctica?

A

Fishing restrictions implemented in Northern hemisphere 2007 - catch allowance increased by near;y 600%

95
Q

FISHING AND WHALING: Problems with overfishing of krill?

A

Impacts food chain
Increases phytoplankton

96
Q

FISHING AND WHALING: When did whaling begin in this area?

A

1904

97
Q

FISHING AND WHALING: When was commercial whaling banned?

A

1986

98
Q

MINERAL EXPLOITATION: What could demand for minerals globally cause in the future?

A

Conflict - many countries already put in claims as safeguarding measures

99
Q

TOURISM AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH: What disturbs bird population + what will worsen this?

A

PLanes - worsened if Australia open its runway for tourism

100
Q

TOURISM AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH: What are the risks posed from tourims?

A

Contamination + spread of diseases due to inc tourist number and little management (as not owned by one nation)

101
Q

TOURISM AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH: Positives of torism

A

Profits from cruises donated to NGO’s
Provides future protection for Antarctica

102
Q

IWC: What caused the issue of whaling to be first publicly broadcasted + how did public respond?

A

Greenpeace protestors confronting whaling fleets on high seas - demand for whale began to rapidly decrease

103
Q

IWC: What is the purpose of the International whaling Commision?

A

Intergovernmental organisation
Regulates whaling, ensures whale populations are at sustainable level
Imposed Global Whailing Moratorium

104
Q

IWC: When was Global Whaling Moratorium imposed?
WHy are whales still allowed to be killed?

A

1982 - for scientific purposes

105
Q

IWC: Advantages of the moratorium?

A
  • Everyone in whaling industry lost out equally - NO BIAS
    Whale pop has been able to recover
    Easy to spot someone whaling
    Raises awareness
106
Q

IWC: Disadavatges of the moratprium?

A

HArd to monitor the whole of the Southern Ocean
SOme argue that everuone has the right to use Antarctica as a global common
Greenpeace argues poorly enforced

107
Q

IWC: Problems of Japan’s abuse of the system

A

Other nations may follow
Around 300 whales killed each year

108
Q

IWC: Long term aims of the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary

A

Deevelop non-letha research
Provide economic benefits i.e whale watcjing
Increase public awareness of vulnerbaility of marine ecosystems
Allow whale pop by protecting their feeding and breeding grounds

109
Q

IWC: Success of the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary

A

Covers most of the Southern Ocean
Non-lethal research means less whales need to be killed in future
Raises public awareness
Protects breeding + feeding grounds
Finds other economic uses for whales - gives ex-whalers a job

110
Q

IWC: Failure of Southern Ocean WHale Sanctuary

A

Hasnt stopped Japan as doesnt protect against scientific whailing
Doesn’t protect whales outside protection areas
Difficult to monitor such a large area
Only protects areas that are importaht now which may cange with cliate change, leaving whales unprotected

111
Q

WHy have NGO’s like SCAR and ASOC been set up?

A

DO the work gov can’t/ won’t do
Don’t have an agnda

112
Q

WHat does SCAR stand for?

A

Scientific Comittee on Antarctic Research

113
Q

What is the purpose of SCAR

A

In charge of initiation, promotion, and coordination of research on Antarctica
Provide independent scientific advice to inform the Antarctic Treaty System

114
Q

ASOC: WHy was the ANtarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition set up - when?

A

1978 - Created so NGO’s could have a greater influence on governments at the world stage

115
Q

ASOC: Examples of NGOs involved

A

Over 30 including:
WWF,
Greenpeace
Friends of the Earth

116
Q

ASOC: What does their work mainly focus on?

A

Environmental protection
Monitors environmental change
Ensures legislation is being kept up

117
Q

ASOC: Successes

A

ON:Y NGO working full time to preserve Antarctica + Southern Ocean
Powerful as it consists of 30 NGOs
Helps raise public awareness about threats to Antarctica and encourages government involvement

118
Q

ASOC: Failures

A

Difficult to monitor whole of SOuhern Ocean
Worl on lots of projects - energy not focused in one place

119
Q

ASOC: WHy are they so interested in protecting the Ross sea?

A

Important for the diverse ecosystem present
50% of Ross Sea killer whales

120
Q

WHat legislation protects Antarctic minerals

A

1991 Protocol on Environmental Protection on the Antarctic Treaty

121
Q

What is the 1991 Protocol on Environmental Protection on the Antarctic Treaty key points?

A

Banned all mining
Rules on:
- Regulating waste disposal
- Preventing pollluion
Protecting plants and animals - environmental impact assessment reuired before new activities conducted

122
Q

Why is it difficult to preventthe damage caused?

A

Most damage not caused in Antarctica
i.e pollution or Ghg’s

Human Geography: Global Governance + Systems (22 decks)

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