🌍 ✅CASE STUDY - Antarctica Flashcards
What does Antarctica store?
60% of the worlds fresh water
How does the continent change in winter?
It doubles in size
When was Antarctica discovered?
By 1821, by sealers
When was the heroic exploration of Antarctica?
1895-1922
What is an ice sheet?
Results from small inputs of snow and frost (exceeding ablation rates) over a very long time
What is ablation?
The opposite of accumulation, refers to all processes that remove snow, ice and water from the glacier or snowfield
What is a nunataks?
An exposed, rock element of a ridge, mountain or peak not covered by snow or ice within or at the edge of an ice field or glacier.
Also known as GLACIAL ISLANDS
What is the Antarctic convergence zone?
A natural boundary separating 2 distinct hydrological regions/ areas of distinct climate
Why do Antarctic waters freeze at such low temperatures?
Because they are so salty
What happens at the Antarctic convergence zone?
Warm surface water and cold Antarctic water meet
What is global thermohaline circulation?
When water moves along gradients
How does water have a tendency to move?
From warm to colder areas
How much of the land is ice free?
Less that 5%
what do mean winters range from?
-9 to -68 degrees C
What are claims of Antarctica land founded on?
- Discovery and exploration of areas
- Proximity to Antarctica
- Seeking control of natural resources
When was the Antarctica Treaty created?
1959, enforced from 1961
How many countries have now signed the treaty?
46
WHat IS the Antarctic Treaty System?
A combination of the Antarctic Treaty and other related systems
- hold anual meetings
What are the main intentions of the treaty?
-Antarctica shall be used for peaceful purposes only
-Antarctica should be a site of scientific investigation
-No nation would be obligated to surrender its claim, and no new claim could be made
REGARDED AS MOST SUCCESFUL PIECE OF LEGISLATION
What does the environmental protocol of the treaty state?
- Commits the parties to comprehensive protection of the Antarctic environment
- Designated Antarctica as a natural reserve devoted to peace and science
- Bans all commercial mineral resource activity
- Requires assessment of impacts of any activities
when will the environment protocol be revised?
2048
How many environmental NGOs work in coalition to protect Antarctica?
Over 1000
What human activities threaten Antarctica?
Scientific research
Mineral exploitation
Fisheries + whaling
Tourism
How many permanent scientific bases exist on Antarctica?
40 - means of resources flown or shipped in
How has scientific research threatened the environment?
In 1989, an Argentine ship ran around and released 25,000 gallons of fuel into the sea.
Similar events have occurred at Russians and US bases
Where have coal seams been discovered?
Along coastline and in the mountains
Why has activity at coal seams so far been deterred?
It isn’t commercially viable, but may be needed for future demand
Where has a great potential for oil?
The Weddel and Ross seas, on the continental shelf
How many barrels of oil are estimated to be in the Weddel and Ross seas?
50 bn
What is the only large scale exploitation in Antarctica?
Fishing
What are the impacts of fishing in Antarctica?
- Over-fishing of target species
- Effects on species that depend on target species
- Killing of other species accidentally caught
- Destruction of habitat by equipment
what is the biggest species of concern in Antarctic fisheries?
Krill
Why are krill such an important species?
they feed on phytoplankton, and are then eaten by a wide range of species
what has declined due to the over fishing of krill?
the decline in some penguin
Why is krill being fished?
It is used to feed salmon farms and their enzymes have pharmaceutical uses
What is CCAMLR?
Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources
What do CCAMLR do?
Control the commercial fisheries in the Southern Ocean, taking into account the species being fished and their prey and predator species. They monitor all fishing in the region
What must all vessels in the CCAMLR region participate in?
Monitoring systems to report krill catches
Why are pharmaceutical companies interest in Antarctic species?
For their anti-freeze protein in their blood, and for how fish slow their heartbeat to save energy in cold environments
Who banned whaling in the Antarctic?
the International Whaling Commission
What is the limit of viability?
The amount of meltwater an ice shelf can take before it begins to weaken and retreat
What area does the Antarctic Treaty apply to?
60 degrees south
What does the Treaty not apply to?
the seas
When was the Whaling Moratorium introduced?
1982
How were whales previously hunted?
Using harpoons and specialist whaling boats
What did Greenpeace do for Antarctic whales?
they launched an anti-whaling campaign shortly after the organisation formed, and Greenpeace ships began confronting whaling fleets -demand for whales began to rapidly decrease
Which countries ignore the moratorium?
Japan
Iceland
Norway
How many whales does Japan hunt each year for “research”?
300
How much money can 1 whale make?
$1 million
When was the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary set up?
1994
Who set up the Southern Ocean Whale sanctuary?
The International Whaling Commission
What is the aim of the whale sanctuary?
To benefit the long term conservation of whales
How does the whale sanctuary benefit whales?
By facilitating recovery of depleted whale populations by protecting important areas
How does the whale sanctuary benefit surrounding nations economically?
Provides economic benefits to range of states by providing opportunities to develop non-lethal economic use of ecotourism and whale watching
How has scientific whaling changed over the years?
It has increased
What is the Madrid Protocol?
The protocol on environmental protection for the Antarctic treaty, protects natural reserves
How successful has the Madrid protocol been?
Mining is prohibited and minerals are protected, so the environment is preserved, and toxic chemical are prohibited from being discharges into the sea
Why is the Madrid protocol needed?
To provide comprehensive protection for the environment after Russian bases were dumping waste
How many parties have agreed to the Madrid Protocol?
34, with a further 11 signed but not ratified
What is the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals?
A convention for promoting and achieving the protection, scientific study and rational use of seals
When did the seal convention come into place?
1978
After seals were killed by clubbing for their pelts, young seals wanted
What has happened since the seal convention came into place?
Seal populations have recovered, proof that’s CCAS is a successful international agreement
why is the seal convention needed?
To recognise that the stocks of Antarctic seals are an important living resource and should not be exploited and depleted
How many parties have agreed to the seal convention?
17
What is the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources?
An international convention with the objectives of conserving Antarctic marine life, in response to increasing commercial interest in krill
When was the Conservation of Marine Living resources brought in?
1982
The same year as the whaling ban
How successful has CCAMLR been?
seabird mortality has been reduced, protected areas have been established, vulnerable ecosystems managed and challenges of illegal fishing addressed
Why was CCAMLR set up?
Because there was increasing commercial interest in krill
Who enforces CCAMLR?
All vessels are monitored and the policy is implemented by all 25 countries
What is ASOC?
Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition
Who does ASOC represent?
Brings together 30+ groups = a wide scope, includes WWF and Wildlife Organisations
Why was ASOC set up?
A US lawyer exposed a secret minerals framework for Antarctica
What categories are ASOC’s current works split into?
- Environmental Protection
- Wildlife Conservation
- Antarctic Governance
How does ASOC plan to tackle Antarctic climate change issues?
Through public advocacy, promoting adaptation strategies, and climate science
What do ASOC seek in terms of protection?
the highest possible level of environmental protection for the Antarctic region and for all wildlife
Which area do ASOC want to be protected?
The Ross Sea and areas for species such as Minkle whales and krill
How important is ASOC’s work in the Ross Sea?
It is striving for it to be a Marine Protected Area and maintaining its diversity and abundant marine life. Almost untouched as it was thousands of years ago, preserved
Antarctiva is the driest continent because…
Its anual precipitation is 50mm - polar desert
Antarctica is the windiest continent because…
SMooth Antarctica surface allows for fast winds not slowed by surface friction
Antarctica is the coldest continent because…
Avg temperature is -49oC (feels colder due to wind chill)
WHy does the ANtacrtic Convergence Zone vary seasonally?
Due to the expansion and contraction of sea ice
2 main factors have increased the threat Antarctica faces
Technology - we can now get there
Greater demand for resources - exploiting Antarctica is now economically viable
What are the 4 main threats Antarctica faces?
Climate change
Fishing and Whaling
Mineral Exploitation
Tourism and SCientifc Research
CLIMATE CHANGE: Which parts of Antarctia are cooling - which parts aren’t?
East cooling - not near the coastal parts (ocean a radiator)
West melting - likely the East will grow as the West melts
CLIMATE CHANGE: What is the melting of the Antarctic Penisula causing?
Positive dieback - loss of ice sheleves has caused ice to speed up in land
CLIMATE CHANGE: How many tonnes of ice gave been lost each year since 1993 - impact on gobal sea levels?
100 bn tonnes each year
Increased global sea levels by 0.2mm a year
CLIMATE CHANGE: What will partly offset the increase in the rate of ice melt?
Increased snow fall
CLIMATE CHANGE: By how much has the Southern Ocean temperatures increased since 1995?
1C
CLIMATE CHANGE: What impacts has the Southern Ocean warming more quickly that the oceans globally had?
- Changed distribution of penguin colonies
- Krill populations fallen by up to 80% in last 40 years
- Melting snow = increased plant colonialisation
- Ocean acidification
CLIMATE CHANGE: Althrough the melting of ice shelves doesnt contribute to sea level rise, how do they cause it?
Rate of flow of glaciers behind the ice shelves increases
These glaciers melt = sea levels rise
CLIMATE CHANGE: Why might sea ice be expanding on the eastern side of Antarctica?
More snow and rain layering Southern Ocean with a cooler, denser top
More storms = local waters less salty, raises temp of ice formation
Melting of continental land ice = icebergs - contributes to sea ice formation
CLIMATE CHANGE: What is the problem with carbonic acid that would be created with increased atmospheric carbon dioxide?
Oceans would become a little more acidic
Could potentially corrode unprotected shells and skeletons - problems with food chain
CLIMATE CHANGE: Why wou ld some argue global trade/ globalisation was reponsidble for climate change?
Global trade has increased the movement of goods - increased fossil fuel consumption
(Antarctica doesn’t benifit from this trade AT ALL, it is instead impacted by the pollution and waste generated from the trade)
FISHING AND WHALING: Why are krill so heavily fished around Antarctica?
Fishing restrictions implemented in Northern hemisphere 2007 - catch allowance increased by near;y 600%
FISHING AND WHALING: Problems with overfishing of krill?
Impacts food chain
Increases phytoplankton
FISHING AND WHALING: When did whaling begin in this area?
1904
FISHING AND WHALING: When was commercial whaling banned?
1986
MINERAL EXPLOITATION: What could demand for minerals globally cause in the future?
Conflict - many countries already put in claims as safeguarding measures
TOURISM AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH: What disturbs bird population + what will worsen this?
PLanes - worsened if Australia open its runway for tourism
TOURISM AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH: What are the risks posed from tourims?
Contamination + spread of diseases due to inc tourist number and little management (as not owned by one nation)
TOURISM AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH: Positives of torism
Profits from cruises donated to NGO’s
Provides future protection for Antarctica
IWC: What caused the issue of whaling to be first publicly broadcasted + how did public respond?
Greenpeace protestors confronting whaling fleets on high seas - demand for whale began to rapidly decrease
IWC: What is the purpose of the International whaling Commision?
Intergovernmental organisation
Regulates whaling, ensures whale populations are at sustainable level
Imposed Global Whailing Moratorium
IWC: When was Global Whaling Moratorium imposed?
WHy are whales still allowed to be killed?
1982 - for scientific purposes
IWC: Advantages of the moratorium?
- Everyone in whaling industry lost out equally - NO BIAS
Whale pop has been able to recover
Easy to spot someone whaling
Raises awareness
IWC: Disadavatges of the moratprium?
HArd to monitor the whole of the Southern Ocean
SOme argue that everuone has the right to use Antarctica as a global common
Greenpeace argues poorly enforced
IWC: Problems of Japan’s abuse of the system
Other nations may follow
Around 300 whales killed each year
IWC: Long term aims of the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary
Deevelop non-letha research
Provide economic benefits i.e whale watcjing
Increase public awareness of vulnerbaility of marine ecosystems
Allow whale pop by protecting their feeding and breeding grounds
IWC: Success of the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary
Covers most of the Southern Ocean
Non-lethal research means less whales need to be killed in future
Raises public awareness
Protects breeding + feeding grounds
Finds other economic uses for whales - gives ex-whalers a job
IWC: Failure of Southern Ocean WHale Sanctuary
Hasnt stopped Japan as doesnt protect against scientific whailing
Doesn’t protect whales outside protection areas
Difficult to monitor such a large area
Only protects areas that are importaht now which may cange with cliate change, leaving whales unprotected
WHy have NGO’s like SCAR and ASOC been set up?
DO the work gov can’t/ won’t do
Don’t have an agnda
WHat does SCAR stand for?
Scientific Comittee on Antarctic Research
What is the purpose of SCAR
In charge of initiation, promotion, and coordination of research on Antarctica
Provide independent scientific advice to inform the Antarctic Treaty System
ASOC: WHy was the ANtarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition set up - when?
1978 - Created so NGO’s could have a greater influence on governments at the world stage
ASOC: Examples of NGOs involved
Over 30 including:
WWF,
Greenpeace
Friends of the Earth
ASOC: What does their work mainly focus on?
Environmental protection
Monitors environmental change
Ensures legislation is being kept up
ASOC: Successes
ON:Y NGO working full time to preserve Antarctica + Southern Ocean
Powerful as it consists of 30 NGOs
Helps raise public awareness about threats to Antarctica and encourages government involvement
ASOC: Failures
Difficult to monitor whole of SOuhern Ocean
Worl on lots of projects - energy not focused in one place
ASOC: WHy are they so interested in protecting the Ross sea?
Important for the diverse ecosystem present
50% of Ross Sea killer whales
WHat legislation protects Antarctic minerals
1991 Protocol on Environmental Protection on the Antarctic Treaty
What is the 1991 Protocol on Environmental Protection on the Antarctic Treaty key points?
Banned all mining
Rules on:
- Regulating waste disposal
- Preventing pollluion
Protecting plants and animals - environmental impact assessment reuired before new activities conducted
Why is it difficult to preventthe damage caused?
Most damage not caused in Antarctica
i.e pollution or Ghg’s
