Case Studies Im Actually gonna use Flashcards
Chernoybl
1986
Unit 1
nuclear reactor exploded
Cost 700 Billion usd to clean up
radioactive fallout
336k evacuated
cancer increase in surronding area
reinforced negative perceptions around nuclear
forests surrounding the nuclear plant died (Red Forest)
Fauna inhabited abandoned cities and villages
Mutations and malformations in the offsprings.
Minamata disease
Unit 1
1956
chemcial factories released toxic mecurury into water
fish gained through biomagnifcation,then cats, then humans
caused paralysis
raised awarness of risks from factories and enviormental regulations
Silent spring
Unit 1
DDT used as pesticide to control malaria (1940s-1970s)
banned due to env. & health impacts (Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants)
DDT caused eagles to lay thin-shelled eggs (biomagnification) and lead to reproductive failure
published into a book by Rachel carlson
1962
concern of dangers from pesticides
Tropical rainforest
Unit 2 Ecosystems
Poison dart frog
Location: Near equator (tropics of Cancer (23.5°N) and Capricorn (23.5°S))
Temperature: Constant high (21-30°C)
Precipitation: High (2000-10000 mm annually)
Productivity: High
Species Diversity: High
Example: Amazon, South America
Human Impacts:
- 38% of the remaining Amazonian rainforest is suffering from degradation
- 20% of the Amazon rainforest has been destroyed since the 1970s
- 36% of Earth’s tropical rainforests remain intact
Tundra
Unit 2
Location: Places with high latitudes and low insolation (60°-75° North and South)
Temperature: Extremely low (often snowing, -40 to 18°C)
Precipitation: Low (150 to 250 mL/yr)
Productivity: Low
Example: Iceland, Europe
Reindeer moss, thick shrub absorbs moisture
Human Impacts:
Climate change and global warming, which are causing the permafrost to thaw and the tundra to shrink
Tropical Coral Reef
Unit 2
Location: Tropics & subtropics (35°N to 35°S)
Temperature: 23°to 29°C
Productivity: Very high
Human Impacts:
- Climate change
- Declining water quality
- Overfishing
- Pollution
- Unsustainable coastal development
- By 2050, 70-90% of coral will die (coral bleaching)
- Corals lose their symbiotic algae (zooxanthellae) which provide nutrients through photosynthesis. When they are released due to environmental stresses, corals lose their color and die.
Hadley Cell
Unit 2
Hadley Cell
- Largest cell (0° to 40° N and S)
- Trade winds travel from the tropical region to the equator
- When trade winds meet, hot air rises, forming thunderstorms
- Air travels higher and becomes cooler (sinks to subtropical region)
- Dry, cloudless air is warmed by the sun (Hot Deserts)
Ferrel Cell
Unit 2
Ferrel Cell
- Middle cell (edge of Hadley cell to 70° N and S)
- Moves in the opposite direction
- Air joins with Hadley and Polar Cell (unsettled weather)
Primary succession
Unit 3
Surtsey, Iceland
- Formed due to an undersea eruption in 1963
- 30 plant species had been established by 2008
- Forestation on the island may require 300-2000 years
Secondary Succession natrual
Unit 3
Mount St Helen, US
- Volcanic eruption in 1980 caused disturbance in meadows and forests. This destroyed the community
Colonization
Pioneer species survived in burrows and ice-covered lakes colonize
Vine maple resprout in soil, logs held fungi and microbes
Competition
Diversity increase rapidly
In 20 years, plant growth grew 66%
Old climax species migrate back (Roosevelt Elk)
Stabilization
There is little additional increase in diversity
Secondary Succession Due to Human Impact
Heather Moorlands, Northern England
- Logging in the Middle Ages removed deciduous woodland
Invasive species Heather reach the new equilibrium
Management strategies to burn and graze dominant heather in small patches
Promote the growth of birch, pine, oak trees
Constructive/Divergent Plate Tectonics
Unit 3
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
- Convection currents rise & spread outwards when they reach the top of the mantle
- Plates are dragged apart
- Magma from the mantle rises up through the opened cracks
- Ocean ridges and volcanoes are formed
- Magma cools, forming new ocean crust
Convergent Plate Tectonics
(Continental-Continental crust)
&
(Continental-Oceanic crust)
Unit 3
Himalayas
1. Mantle convection currents converge & sink
2. Plates are pushed together
3. Plates crumble up (forms mountains)
Andes Mountains/Peru Trench
1. Plates move toward each other
2. Denser plate subducts (oceanic plate)
3. Causes earthquakes & volcanic eruptions
Mass Extinction - Cretaceous
Unit 3
146-65 million years ago
Meteor strike in Yucatan, Mexico
Dust, debris & Sulphur dispersed in the atmosphere
Frequency of wildfires & tsunamis increased
Global warming
Killed 76% of all species
Mass Extinction - Permian
Unit 3
299-251 million years ago
Siberian traps eruption releases CO2 and other GHGs in the atmosphere
Lead to global warming and acid rain
Drastic decrease in water and oxygen levels
Wiped out 90% of species
American bald eagle’s (Improved by intervention)
Unit 3
Native to North America; symbol of the USA
Lifespan: up to 40 years in the wild
Habitat: near large bodies of water; nest in tall, mature trees close to water
Diet: primarily fish; also small animals like rabbits, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and carrion
Population history:
1700s: 300,000–500,000 individuals
Early 1960s: fewer than 500 breeding pairs due to shooting, habitat destruction, pesticide use
DDT pesticide caused eggshell thinning, reducing hatch rates
Recovery efforts:
Banned DDT and hunting
Legal protections and habitat conservation
Captive breeding programs
By 2007: population recovered to ~10,000 breeding pairs
Removed from endangered species list after recovery
IUCN - Extinct - Golden Toad
Unit 3
Habitat:
- wet mountainous areas of the the forest of Northern Costa Rica (Cloud Forest Reserve
- Elevation: 2000-2100 m
Ecological Role:
- both predator & prey (will impact the balance of the food chain)
Reason for Extinction:
- Introduction of chytrid fungi (invasive species that brought disease)
- Very small/niche geographical rage of habitat
Consequences of Extinction:
- Loss of food source for predators
- Overpopulation of prey insects
IUCN - Critically Endangered - Orangutan
Unit 3
a
Habitat:
- rain forests of Southeast Asia (Borneo & Sumatra)
Ecological Role:
- world’s largest seed disperses
- help forest regeneration
Pressure on the Species:
- Illegal & unsustainable logging (habitat decrease)
- Collection of palm oil (plantations) which decrease biodiversity
- Destroying native rainforest for monoculture
Conservation Efforts:
- Preventing deforestation
- Orangutan population rehabilitation
- Reducing illegal activities
Indonesia
Unit 7
Indonesia’s energy mix in 2023 relies heavily on fossil fuels, with coal accounting for about 62% of electricity production and fossil fuels overall making up 86% of generation capacity
Renewable energy share is low, around 14–19% (below the initial 23% target), mainly from hydro (7%), bioenergy (6.4%), and geothermal (4.8%); solar and wind remain underdeveloped (<1%)
Wood and biomass remain important energy sources in rural areas, especially for cooking and heating, due to limited electricity access and economic constraints
Indonesia plans to increase renewables to 35% by 2034, focusing on solar (17 GW), hydropower (16 GW), and geothermal (5 GW), but coal and natural gas will still supply about 30% of power
Energy demand is projected to nearly six-fold by 2060, requiring a balance between economic growth and decarbonization
Newfoundland vs Iceland
Unit 4
NEWFOUNDLAND
Overreliance on Total Allowable Catch (TAC) system
Failed to account for bycatch and discards
No effective enforcement of fishing regulations
Continued issuing licenses despite declining stocks
Prioritized short-term economic gains over sustainability
Iceland:
Implemented Individual Transferable Quota (ITQ) system
Strict enforcement of 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone
Real-time monitoring of fish populations
Seasonal closure of spawning grounds
Strict mesh size regulations to protect juvenile fish
Limited number of fishing licenses
Required use of selective fishing gear
The fuck ass cod impacts
Unit 4
The fuck ass cod impacts
a
Newfoundland:
Complete collapse of cod population (99% decline)
Trophic cascade affecting entire marine ecosystem
Increase in shellfish populations (prey release)
Shift in marine food web structure
Destruction of seafloor habitat from trawling
Loss of genetic diversity in cod populations
Changes in zooplankton and phytoplankton composition
Seabird population declines
Iceland:
Maintained cod biomass above critical levels
Protected spawning grounds preserved genetic diversity
Minimal impact on marine food web
Sustained ecosystem balance
Limited bottom trawling damage
Maintained predator-prey relationships
Protected marine mammal populations
Preserved marine biodiversity
Palau Fishing Conservation
Unit 4
Palau’s National Marine Sanctuary (PNMS) established in 2020, protecting 80% of Palau’s 600,000 sq km Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) as a no-take zone
Remaining 20% designated as Domestic Fishing Zone for sustainable local fishing and food security
Sanctuary protects vital habitats including coral reefs, seamounts, spawning sites, and supports over 1,300 fish species, 400 hard coral species, endangered turtles, sharks, manta rays, and whales
Fish biomass inside protected zones is 2x higher; top predators (groupers, sharks, snappers) are 5x more abundant than in fished areas
Protection reduces bycatch mortality of seabirds, turtles, sharks, and billfish, benefiting conservation and fisheries
Fish populations spill over into fishing zones, enhancing catches and supporting local fisheries
Enhances ecotourism by preserving vibrant marine ecosystems, benefiting local economy and livelihoods
Borneo Rainforest - Danum Valley Conservation Area
Unit 3
Research-Based Management:
Designated as Class 1 Forest Reserve
Strict protection status with no logging history
Research-driven conservation strategies
Long-term ecological monitoring programs
Collaboration with scientific institutions
Comprehensive biodiversity surveys
Focus on pristine forest preservation
Joint management by Sabah Foundation and research bodies
Community Integration:
Limited access to protect ecosystem integrity
Controlled ecotourism activities
Education and awareness programs
Training local conservation scientists
Employment opportunities for local communities
Traditional knowledge integration
Sustainable tourism development
Capacity building initiatives
DVCA
(Env Impacts)
Unit 3
Conservation Outcomes:
Protects 438,000 hectares of primary lowland dipterocarp rainforest in Sabah, Malaysian Borneo
Home to over 300 bird species, 120 mammal species, including ~2,500 orangutans in the region
Forest stores an estimated 1,000 tonnes of carbon per hectare, contributing significantly to carbon sequestration
Watershed supports clean water for surrounding communities and ecosystems, covering thousands of hectares of catchment area
Genetic diversity conserved across hundreds of plant species and thousands of insect species, including over 1,000 butterfly species
Enhances climate resilience by maintaining intact forest cover amid increasing El Niño drought frequency (noted increase in droughts by 30% over past 50 years)
Maintains ecosystem connectivity across a landscape of over 1 million hectares within the Heart of Borneo initiative
Scientific Benefits:
Over 500 research projects conducted since establishment in 1980s, involving Malaysian and international scientists
Long-term ecological monitoring plots cover >100 hectares, tracking forest growth, mortality, and regeneration
Orangutan research includes behavioral studies on ~100 individuals over multiple decades
Documented discovery of dozens of new insect and land snail species unique to the area
Climate impact studies show changes in forest phenology and species distribution linked to temperature increases of ~0.2°C per decade
Wildlife population monitoring includes camera trap surveys covering thousands of hectares, recording over 50 mammal species regularly
Canopy research towers enable vertical biodiversity and microclimate studies up to 60 meters above ground
Biodiversity baseline data critical for regional conservation planning affecting over 1 million hectares of forest landscape
GALAPAGOS TORTOISE & BLACK PEPPERED MOTH
Unit 3
(The shit that happened to it)
Turtle lived isolated on an island - Moth got raped by Industrial plants
Galapagos Tortoise
Different shell morphology per island
Neck length variations for feeding
Size adaptations to available resources
Shell dome shape varies with habitat
Distinct subspecies per island
Feeding strategy adaptations
Behavioral adaptations
Island-specific traits
Black Peppered Moth
Rapid color change evolution
Camouflage adaptation
Survival against predation
Gene frequency shifts
Population dynamics change
Phenotypic variation
Selection intensity
Genetic polymorphism
GEOGRAPHICAL ISOLATION
Unit 3
Emu (Australia):
Isolation Factors:
Continental drift
Geographical barriers
Climate adaptation
Habitat specialization
Australian ecosystem
Unique predator pressures
Resource availability
Breeding isolation
Ostrich (Africa):
Isolation Factors:
Original continent presence
Savanna adaptation
Large predator presence
African climate
Resource availability
Breeding territories
Habitat preferences
Population distribution
Shared Adaptations:
Flightless nature
Large body size
Running ability
Similar feeding habits
Egg size/structure
Social behavior
Territorial nature
Breeding strategies
Paris Climate Agreement
Unit 8
Climate change mitigation, adaptation & finance (2015)
180 parties (Nationally Determined Contributions)
Cut emission of GHGs by 50% by 2030
Prevent global temperatures from rising over 1.5C at preindustrial levels
Methods:
- Energy efficiency
- Renewable energy use
- Carbon capture storage (CCS)
- Foregoing fossil fuels
- Reduce consumption
- Reduce deforestation
- Infrastructure upgrade
Anti-natalist Policy: China (“One-Child Policy”)
Unit 8
a
Background: 1979–2015 policy to curb population growth; replaced by 2-child, then 3-child policies.
Enforcement: Fines, forced abortions, sterilizations; exceptions for minorities and rural families.
Stats: 400 million births prevented; fertility rate fell from ~5.8 (1970) to ~1.7 (2013), now ~1.0; male-biased sex ratio (1.16 boys/girl).
Impacts: Aging population, “4-2-1” support issue, gender imbalance, social problems (abandonment, undocumented children).
Policy Relaxation: 3-child policy in 2021; low birth rates persist due to cultural factors.
Ecological Footprint Comparison: Hong Kong vs. Bangladesh
Unit 8
3 strategic landfills (restored), nearing capacity.
New Waste-to-Energy (WtE) incinerators (I- PARK1 in 2025, I- PARK2 in 2030) to reduce landfill use.
Incineration reduces waste volume by >90%, generates electricity, but produces ash needing landfill disposal.
Concerns: incineration emits carbon, may reduce recycling incentives, not fully sustainable.
Daily waste: ~15,725 tonnes; incineration capacity will reach 9,000 tonnes/day, still insufficient.
–
68
q
Ecological Footprint Comparison: Hong Kong vs. Bangladesh
a
Development Level
Highly developed, global financial hub VS Developing, lower income economy
Per Capita Ecological Footprint
~4.7–5.4 global hectares (gha) per person; among highest in Asia VS Much lower, below global average
Biocapacity
Very low (~0.03 gha per person); large ecological deficit, relies heavily on imports VS Higher biocapacity per capita, smaller deficit
Carbon Emissions
High per capita (~4.5 tonnes/year); major contributor to footprint VS Much lower per capita emissions
Waste Generation
High waste production; advanced waste management needed VS Lower waste generation; limited infrastructure
Pro-natalist Policy: Singapore (“Have three or more if you can afford it”)
Unit 8
Background: Shifted from anti-natalist (“Stop at Two”) to pro-natalist in 1987 due to low fertility.
Incentives: Baby Bonus (up to SGD 18,000 for 3rd child), Child Development Accounts, childcare leave, fertility treatment subsidies.
Stats: TFR dropped below 2.1 in 1975; 1.10 in 2020; 0.97 in 2023; population growth negative.
Challenges: Cultural shift slow, financial incentives insufficient, work-life balance issues
TFR -> Total Fertility Rate
The Sahel - Conflict in Sudan
Unit 5
Located south of the Sahara
Semi-arid marginal land (very close to becoming a desert –> fragile)
Extends across LICs (<$1135 per year)
Gets irregular seasonal rains
Sahara is spreading south due to climate change
Civil war (13/04/2023 - present)
Janjaweed invaded the Darfur area (people were forced to migrate West)
Overpopulation in refugee camps & high natality rate = high demand for food & resources = deforestation
Refugee farmers brought goats & camels = overgrazing
carrying capacity is exceeded (too many animals per unit area) & trampling
The Sahel - The Great Green Wall
Unit 5
Scheme trying tor reforest the Sahel
Soil was too degraded to plant anywhere East of Senegal
Japan Energy Choices
Unit 7
Japan’s 7th Strategic Energy Plan (2025) targets 40-50% renewables and 20% nuclear power by 2040, doubling nuclear’s 2023 share (~8.5%)
Fossil fuels still projected to supply 30-40% of electricity by 2040, despite decarbonization efforts
Stigma around nuclear energy:
Public opinion remains largely negative due to historical nuclear disasters (Hiroshima, Nagasaki, Bikini Atoll, and especially Fukushima in 2011)
Surveys post-Fukushima show up to 80% opposition to nuclear power, with concerns about safety, radiation, and waste disposal deeply ingrained in society
Energy mix and challenges:
In 2023, Japan generated 31% of electricity from clean sources, below the global average of 39%; fossil fuels accounted for about 69%
Solar is largest renewable source (~11%), but wind remains underdeveloped (<2%) despite high potential
Nuclear restarts face public resistance despite government plans to increase its share for energy security and emissions reduction
Japan’s reliance on fossil fuels contributes to emissions above global average, complicating climate goals
