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cardiac system Flashcards

1
Q

what are the functions of blood

A
  • transport respiratory gases, nutrients, waste, hormones, heat
  • regulation of pH, ion composition and volume of blood
  • protecting with immune defences and hemostasis
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2
Q

what is the colour of blood, with O2 and without

A

bright red (saturated w oxygen)
dark red (unsaturated)

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3
Q

what is plasma

A
  • watery extracellular matrix
  • the fluid portion of blood
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4
Q

what does plasma contain

A
  • dissolved substances
  • 91% water, 8.5% solutes
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5
Q

what percentage does plasma make up of the total blood composition

A

55%

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6
Q

what are proteins only found in blood called

A

plasma proteins or dissolved proteins

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7
Q

what are the proteins found in plasma

A

albumin
fibrinogen
globulin

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8
Q

albumin: functions, percentage it makes up of proteins

A
  • 60% of plasma proteins
    functions
  • contributes to osmotic pressure of blood
  • transports fatty acids, steroids, hormones,
  • acts as a buffer
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9
Q

what is the function of fibrinogen

A
  • blood clotting
  • turns from fibrinogen (soluble) to fibrin (insoluble)
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10
Q

what is the function of globulin

A
  • transports proteins for metals, fats and thyroid hormone
  • works as an antibody
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11
Q

what is immunoglobin

A

type of globulin produced during immune responses

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12
Q

what is found in the formed elements of blood?

A
  • cell and cell fragments
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13
Q

the formed elements make up what percentage of total blood composition

A

45%

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14
Q

what is formed elements made up?

A
  • 99% red blood cells
  • 1% white blood cells and platelets
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15
Q

what is the function of rbc

A
  • transports oxygen from lungs to body cells
  • transports CO2 from body cells to lungs
  • contain hemoglobin
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16
Q

what is the function of white blood cells

A
  • protect body from pathogens and foreign substance
  • contribute to body’s defence mechanism
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17
Q

what is the function of platelets

A

release chemicals that promote blood clotting when blood vessels are damaged

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18
Q

out of the formed elements, what are true cells

A
  • wbc
  • rbc and platelets have lost true ell function
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19
Q

what are platelets

A
  • cell membrane wrapped cytoplasmic pieces
  • no nucleus
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20
Q

what is hematocrit

A
  • percentage of total blood volume occupied by rbc
  • carrying capacity blood
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21
Q

what is he hematocrit in women vs men

A

women: 42%
men: 47%

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22
Q

why do men have a higher hematocrit than women

A
  • because they have more testosterone, which synthesis a hormone that inc production of rbc
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23
Q

what are densities of the components of blood

A

formed elements > buffy (wbc and platelets) > blood plasma

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24
Q

how does plasma contribute to homeostasis

A
  • plasma is in equilibrium with IF –> it controls the composition of IF
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25
Q

what’s the difference between IF and plasma

A

plasma contains proteins, IF doesn’t

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26
Q

what is hemostasis

A

stoppage of bleeding

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27
Q

how do platelets contribute to hemostasis

A
  • swell and stick together
  • forms temporary plug to stop bleeding
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28
Q

how does fibrin contribute to hemostasis

A
  • fibrinogen is turn into fibrin when triggered by wound signals
  • platelets stick to fibrin mesh
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29
Q

what is serum?

A

plasma without fibrin
- it wont clot

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30
Q

what is the pericardium

A

double serous membrane that forms the pericardial sac and epicardium

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31
Q

what are the 2 layers of the pericardium

A

fibrous pericardium and serous pericardium

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32
Q

what is the fibrous pericardium

A
  • outer protective layer
  • made of dense CT
  • fused to serous pericardium
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33
Q

what is the serous pericardium

A
  • inner layer of the pericardium
  • double membrane (parietal and visceral pericardium)
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34
Q

what is the parietal pericardium

A
  • outer serous membrane
  • fused to fibrous pericardium
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35
Q

what is the visceral pericardium

A
  • inner serous membrane
  • fused to heart
  • is the epicardium
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36
Q

what is the pericardial cavity

A
  • contains fluid that reduce friction
  • in between serous membrane
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37
Q

what are the 3 layers of the heart wall

A

epicardium
myocardium
endocardium

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38
Q

what is the epicardium made of

A

epithelium and CT

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39
Q

what is the myocardium

A
  • middle heart wall layer
  • made of cardiac muscles cells and fibrous skeleton, blood vessels and nerves
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40
Q

what is fibrous skeleton

A
  • skeleton collagen and elastic fibers
  • support the valves and isolate the atria and ventricles
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41
Q

what is the endocardium

A
  • inner layer of heart wall
  • made of simple squamous and CT –> smooth surface
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42
Q

describe the characteristics of cardiac muscles

A
  • parallel elongated muscle cells
  • striated
  • mono nucleate
  • contains intercalated discs with some branching
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43
Q

what are intercalated discs

A

sieve like structures between cardiac cells that allow ions to pass from one cell to the next
- allows muscles to contract as a unit

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44
Q

what’s the difference between the act pot of the NS and cardiac muscles

A
  • cardiac muscles have prolonged act pot = produces longer contraction
  • is automaticity system = heart can initiate contractions on its own
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45
Q

each side of the heart contains what?

A
  • atrium
  • ventricle
  • av valve
  • sl valve
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46
Q

what is the function of the atria

A

collecting chamber –> receives/collects blood

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47
Q

what is the function of the ventricles

A

pumping chamber –> discharges/pumps blood

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48
Q

what are the 2 circuits of the heart

A

pulmonary and systemic

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49
Q

what is the pulomary circuit

A
  • right side
  • pumps to the lungs to pick up oxygen and unload carbon dioxide
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50
Q

what is the systemic circuit

A
  • left side
  • pumps to the tissues of the body to deliver nutrients and oxygen, and to pick up waste (Co2)
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51
Q

what are the structure that both pumps have

A

arteries
capillaries
veins

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52
Q

what are facts about both pumps

A
  • work in sequence
  • carry equal volumes of blood but aren’t the same length
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53
Q

how are the 2 circuits connected?

A

capillaries

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54
Q

how is the right side different from the left side?

A
  • produced lower pressure pump –> circuit is shorter
  • thinner walls
  • crescent shape around wrapping around left ventricle
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55
Q

how is the left side different from the right

A
  • produced greater pressure –> circuit is longer
  • thickest walls
  • round shaped around wrapping of right ventricle
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56
Q

where are the atrioventricular valves found

A

between atria and ventricles

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57
Q

what do av valves consist of?

A

flaps, chordae tendinae, papillar muscles

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58
Q

what are the 2 types of av valves

A
  • tricuspid: right side - 3 sides
  • bicuspid: left side - 2 flaps
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59
Q

what is a mitral valve

A

bicuspid valve

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60
Q

what is the semilunar valve found

A

between ventricles and vessels

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61
Q

what’s the structure of the sl valve

A

3 cup like flaps

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62
Q

what are the 2 types of sl valve

A
  • pulmonary: right side
  • aortic: left side
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63
Q

when/how does the av valve function

A
  • opens: pressure due to volume in blood in ventricles is less than the atrium
  • pressure due to volume of blood from filling of ventricles is greater than the atria
64
Q

when/how do the sl valves function

A
  • open: due to inc pressure by muscle contraction (pressure in ventricles exceeds pressure in vessels)
  • close: backflow of ejected blood fills cusps (pressure in vessel exceeds pressure in ventricle)
65
Q

what causes the heart sounds

A

due to turbulence in blood caused by closing of valve

66
Q

what are the 3 heart sounds

A

lub dup pause murmurs

67
Q

what is the lub sound

A
  • closing of av valve
  • marks the end of diastole, beginning of ventricular systole
68
Q

what is the dup sound

A
  • closing of sl valve
  • marks end of systole and beginning of diastole
69
Q

what is the pause sound

A

ventricular diastole

70
Q

what is the murmur sound

A

obstructed blood –> incompetent valve

71
Q

what is the path of blood thru heart

A

vena cava
right atrium
tricuspid al valve
right ventricle
pulmonary sl valve
pulmonary trunk and arteries
lung capillaries
pulmonary veins
left atrium
bicuspid valve
left ventricle
aortic sl valve
aorta
arteries
tissue capillaries
veins
vena cava

72
Q

what are auto rhythmic fibers

A

cardiac cells that generate action potential that trigger contractions

73
Q

what are auto rhythmic fibers

A
  • cardiac cells that generate action potential that trigger contractions
  • self excite
  • depolarize on their own
74
Q

what are the pacemaker cells

A
  • autorhythmic fibers in the SA node –> SA node is considered the pace maker
  • they reach threshold first
75
Q

what is the path for the conducting system

A

sa node
av node
bundle of his
bundle branches
purkinje fibers

76
Q

describe the path of the act potential during the conducting system

A
  1. sa node initiates the act pot by depolarizing to threshold
  2. act pot spreads across both atrial surface and reaches av node
  3. av node causes a delay so the atria and ventricles can contract separately
  4. act pot travels to bundle of his then to the bundle branches
  5. bundle branches extend to apex of heart
  6. purkinje fibers conduct the act pot upwards, allowing the ventricle to contract
  7. it restarts
77
Q

if the sa node stops working, what replaces it

A

av node (40-60 bpm)

78
Q

what occurs during the p wave

A

depolarization of the atria

79
Q

what occurs during the qrs complex

A

depolarization of ventricles and atria repolarization

80
Q

what occurs during the t wave

A

repolarization of the ventricles

81
Q

what occurs during the pq interval

A

sa node to bundle

82
Q

what occurs during the st segment

A

ventricular systole

83
Q

what occurs during the tp interval

A

ventricular diastole

84
Q

what is systole

A

contraction

85
Q

what is diastole

A

relaxation

86
Q

what is esv

A
  • end systolic volume
  • volume remaining at the end of contraction
  • aprox 50 ml
87
Q

what is edv

A
  • end diastolic volume
  • max volume the ventricles can be filled
  • aprox 120 ml
88
Q

what is the steps of the cardiac cycle in order

A
  • atrial systole
  • atrial diastole
  • ventricular systole (isovolumetric phase)
  • ventricular systole (ejection phase)
  • ventricular diastole
89
Q

what is stroke volume

A
  • volume pumped out with each beat
  • SV = edv - esv
90
Q

what is the cardiac output

A

amount of blood pumped by each ventricle in a minute
- CO = SV x HR

91
Q

what does the cardiac output depend on?

A
  • preload and postload
92
Q

what is preload

A
  • volume of blood in ventricles at the end of diastole –> end diastolic pressure
  • deg of stretch on the heart before it contract
93
Q

what is afterload

A
  • resistance the ventricle must overcome to circulate blood
  • the pressure that must be overcome before sl valve can open
94
Q

what is the frank starling law

A

more in = more out
the more the heart fills, the greater the contraction force during systole

95
Q

edv is proportional to what

96
Q

what things effect edv/preload

A
  • duration of ventricular diastole –> hr inc = shorter duration of diastole = smaller edv
  • venous return (how much blood flows/returns back to the heart) –> greater volume of blood flow into ventricle = inc edv
97
Q

the sympathetic NS releases epinephrine and norepinephrine. what affects does this have on the cardiac output? why?

A

inc the CO
inc HR

98
Q

what is the effect of thyroxin on the CO

99
Q

what is the effect of glucagon on the CO

100
Q

ions nicotine and caffeine have what effect on the CO

101
Q

how is the cardiac output monitored

A
  • chemoreceptors (monitor the levels of H+ and CO2)
  • baroreceptors (monitor BP)
102
Q

what are veins, arteries and capillaries

A

veins: afferent (bring blood to heart)
arteries: efferent (bring blood away from heart)
capillaries: exchange site

103
Q

what is the path of blood in the from the heart to body back to the heart

A

heart
arteries (elastic then muscular)
arterioles
capillaries
venules
veins
heart

104
Q

which circuit has a greater distribution of vessels?

A

systemic circuit

105
Q

what are the 3 layers of the vessel wall

A

interna / intima tunica
media tunica
externa / adventia tunica

106
Q

describe the intima tunica

A
  • inner most layer
  • simple squamous epithelial
107
Q

describe the media tunica

A
  • middle layer
  • made of smooth muscle that provides a means to control vessel diameter
108
Q

describe the externa tunica

A
  • outer layer
  • made of dense irregular CT (elastic fibers, collagen), which help maintains high blood pressure
109
Q

what are the different type of arteries

A

elastic
muscular
arterioles

110
Q

describe elastic arteries and some examples

A
  • largest arteries –> thickest diameter
  • contains more elastic fibers
  • ex: arota and pulmonary trunk
111
Q

what is the function of elastic arteries

A
  • propel blood when ventricles are relaxed
  • function as pressure reservoir
  • second pump
112
Q

descrive muscular arteries with examples

A
  • medium sized arteries
  • tunica media contains more smooth muscle than elastic fibers
  • thick walls but small diameter
  • kidneys
113
Q

what is the function of muscular arteries

A
  • capable of vasoconstriction/vasodilation
  • branch and deliver blood to organs
  • maintain blood flow
114
Q

what is the function of arterioles

A
  • vasoconstricts in response to SNS
  • main regulator of blood flow to tissues and BP
115
Q

describe the structure of arteries

A
  • thicker walls with more elastic and muscle fibers (thick tunica media)
  • smaller lumens
  • no valves
  • branching
116
Q

describe the structure of veins

A
  • thinner walls with less muscle and elastic fibers
  • thick tunica externa
  • can’t withstand pressure –> lower bp than arteries
  • larger lumens
  • merging
  • more numerous
117
Q

describe the structure of capillaries

A
  • smallest diameter
  • single layer of simple squamous
118
Q

how does exchange in the capillaries occur

A
  • diffusion and osmosis
119
Q

what are the different types of permeability of capillaries

A
  • continuous
  • fenestrated
  • sinusoid
120
Q

what is continuous and where is it found

A
  • no gaps or pores
  • blood brain barrier
121
Q

what is fenestrated and where is it found

A
  • few gaps and pores
  • tissues
122
Q

what is sinusoid and where are they found

A
  • gaps and pores
  • lymph vessels
123
Q

what is the capillary bed

A
  • where the the exchange of blood occurs
  • where venules turn to arterioles
124
Q

what is the pressure and flow like in the capillary bed

A
  • low pressure
  • slow flow but constant
125
Q

what are precapillary sphincters

A
  • rings of smooth muscle that regulates the amount of blood that enters
126
Q

what is the anastomosis

A

path that bypasses the capillary bed

127
Q

what has the highest resistance?
what has the highest pressure?

A

capillaries and veins have highest resistance because going against gravity
arteries have the greatest pressure

128
Q

what is flow

A
  • how blood flows
  • dueto pressure gradient
129
Q

what is the equation for flow (Q)

A

flow = pressure/ resistance

130
Q

what is another word for flow? what is the equation

A

Q = CO = HR x SV = HR x (EDV - ESV)

131
Q

pressure drops due to what

A

resistance

132
Q

what are things that affect resistance

A
  • viscosity (# RBC)
  • vessel length –> the circuit
  • vessel diamater
  • turbulence
133
Q

out of the factors that affect resistance, which of them is not a constant

A

the vessel diameter

134
Q

what is peripheral resistance

A

vessel diameter
- pR

135
Q

describe the pressure drops

A

arteries/arterioles 120
capillaries 40
venules 20
vena cava 2
right atrium 0
# = deg of pressure drop

136
Q

describe how vessel diameter changes in circuit

A

dec in arteries
inc in veins

137
Q

describe how the cross sectional area changes in circuit

A
  • CSA is constant in arteries and veins –> branching doesn’t change total diameter
  • CSA inc slightly in capillaries due to high number of branching
138
Q

describe how the velocity changes in circuit

A
  • dec in arteries due to branching
  • inc in veins due to merging vessels
139
Q

an inc in CSA = —- in flow

140
Q

what are the 2 forces in the capillary bed

A
  • push out (hydrostatic pressure)
  • pull in (osmotic pressure)
141
Q

what is hydrostatic pressure

A
  • Blood pressure
  • pushes fluid out
142
Q

what is the hydrostatic pressure at the arteriole end and venule end

A

arteriole: 35 mmHg
venus: 18 mmHg

143
Q

what is osmotic pressure

A
  • pulls fluid in due to number of solutes in blood
144
Q

what is the osmotic pressure for the venules and arterioles

A

25 mmHg its constant for both

145
Q

what is the net force out at the arterial end of the capillary bed

A

35 - 25 = 10 mmHg

146
Q

what is the net force in at venule end of capillary bed

A

18 - 25 = - 7 mmHg

147
Q

what is venous return

A
  • EDV
  • it’s altered short term by venoconstriction, long term by blood volume
148
Q

what is the peripheral resistance equation

A

pR = Lx n / r squared
L = length
n = viscocsity
r = radius

149
Q

what is the formula for BP

A

edv - esv x HR x pR

150
Q

ESV is controlled by what

A
  • amount of calcium released by SNS (hormones and drugs)
  • Frank Starling (more blood in = good)
151
Q

what causes vasoconstriction

A
  • Ag II
  • endothelial factors (wound factors, when u bleed)
  • local factors (low metabolic activity –> stress)
152
Q

what causes vasodilation

A
  • ANP
  • inflammatory factors like histamine
  • nitrous oxide
  • high metabolic activity
153
Q

what inc BP

A
  • inc in CO
  • inc in HR
  • inc in BP (ADH, aldosterone, ag II)
  • inc pR
  • vasoconstriction
154
Q

what causes a dec in BP

A
  • dec in co
  • dec in blood volume (ANP)
  • dec in pR
  • vasodilation
155
Q

what is the short term mechanisms that alter CO

A

ANS and hormones (E, ADH, Ag II)

156
Q

what is the long term mechanisms that alter BP

A

hormones (Ag II, EPO, ADH, ANP)

anatomy final exam prep (8 decks)

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