Carbohydrates and lipids Flashcards
What type of bonds does carbon form?
Carbon forms covalent bonds. These bonds involve the sharing of electrons between atoms, creating strong connections within compounds. Covalent bonds are represented by short straight lines between atoms in molecular diagram.
How is a covalent bond represented?
A covalent bond is represented by a short straight line between two atoms. This representation is a simplified way to show the sharing of electrons between atoms. In more detailed diagrams, electron dot structures may be used to show the actual electron arrangement.
Why are electrons shared in covalent bonds?
Electrons are shared in covalent bonds to generate strong bonds within compounds. This sharing allows atoms to achieve a stable electron configuration, typically by filling their outer electron shells. The shared electrons are attracted to the nuclei of both atoms, creating a stable bond.
What are the four major categories of biological molecules containing carbon?
The four major categories of biological molecules containing carbon are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. These molecules form the basis of all known life and are often referred to as biomolecules. Each category has distinct structures and functions within living organisms.
How many electrons does carbon have in its outer shell?
Carbon has four electrons in its outer shell. This electron configuration is crucial for carbon’s ability to form up to four covalent bonds. It allows carbon to share electrons with various other elements, contributing to its versatility in forming organic compounds.
How many covalent bonds can each carbon atom form?
Each carbon atom can form four covalent bonds. This is due to its four valence electrons in the outer shell. Carbon can form single, double, or triple bonds, allowing for a wide variety of molecular structures. This bonding capacity is key to carbon’s central role in organic chemistry.
What types of molecules can carbon form with long branched chains?
Carbon can form molecules with long branched chains such as glycogen. These branched structures allow for compact storage of large numbers of subunits. Other examples include some proteins and complex carbohydrates. The branching increases the number of terminal ends, which can be important for the molecule’s function.
What type of molecule does carbon form as long straight chains?
Carbon forms long straight chain molecules such as cellulose. These linear structures contribute to cellulose’s strength and insolubility, making it an ideal structural component in plant cell walls. Other examples of straight-chain carbon molecules include some fatty acids and certain synthetic polymers.
What are examples of molecules containing cyclic single rings formed by carbon?
Pyrimidines such as thymine, uracil, and cytosine are examples of molecules containing cyclic single rings formed by carbon. These are important components of nucleic acids. The ring structure provides stability and allows for specific base-pairing in DNA and RNA molecules.
What are examples of molecules with multiple rings formed by carbon?
Starches and purines (adenine and guanine) are examples of molecules with multiple rings formed by carbon. These complex structures play crucial roles in energy storage (starches) and genetic information storage (purines in DNA and RNA). The multiple ring structures contribute to the unique properties and functions of these molecules.
What type of structure does carbon produce that allows the formation of varied compounds?
Carbon produces a tetrahedral structure that allows the formation of varied compounds. This three-dimensional arrangement of bonds around a central carbon atom enables the creation of diverse molecular shapes and isomers. The tetrahedral structure is fundamental to the vast array of organic compounds found in living systems.
How many single covalent bonds can carbon atoms form?
Carbon atoms can form up to four single covalent bonds. This is due to carbon’s four valence electrons. Each of these bonds can be with different atoms, allowing carbon to act as a versatile building block for complex molecules. This bonding capacity is essential for the formation of the diverse array of organic compounds.
What types of bonds does carbon dioxide contain?
Carbon dioxide contains two double bonds. The molecule consists of a central carbon atom double-bonded to two oxygen atoms (O=C=O). These double bonds are stronger than single bonds and contribute to the molecule’s linear shape and stability. This structure is crucial for CO2’s role in processes like photosynthesis and the carbon cycle.
How many single covalent bonds does methane contain?
Methane contains four single covalent bonds. The central carbon atom is bonded to four hydrogen atoms in a tetrahedral arrangement. This structure gives methane its characteristic shape and properties. Methane is the simplest hydrocarbon and serves as a building block for more complex organic molecules.
What allows unsaturated compounds to form?
Double and triple bonds can form with an adjacent carbon atom, allowing unsaturated compounds to form. These multiple bonds reduce the number of hydrogen atoms that can bond to the carbon atoms. Unsaturated compounds have distinct properties, such as increased reactivity, compared to their saturated counterparts.
Name four functional groups that give organic compounds their individual properties.
Four functional groups that give organic compounds their individual properties are hydroxyl groups, carboxyl groups, amino groups, and phosphate groups. Each of these groups imparts specific chemical and physical properties to the molecules they are part of. For example, hydroxyl groups contribute to water solubility, while amino groups are crucial for protein structure and function.
What does SI stand for in the context of scientific conventions?
SI stands for système international. This is the International System of Units, a standardized system of measurement used globally in science and technology. The SI system ensures consistency and reproducibility in scientific measurements and communications across different countries and disciplines.
What is the SI prefix for 10^3?
The SI prefix for 10^3 is kilo. This prefix is used to denote one thousand of a unit. For example, 1 kilometer equals 1000 meters. The kilo prefix is commonly used in everyday measurements as well as scientific contexts, providing a convenient way to express large quantities.
What is the SI prefix for 10^-2?
The SI prefix for 10^-2 is centi. This prefix represents one hundredth of a unit. A common example is the centimeter, which is one hundredth of a meter. The centi prefix is often used in everyday measurements, particularly for length, but is less common in scientific notation for very small quantities.
What is the SI prefix for 10^-3?
The SI prefix for 10^-3 is milli. This prefix denotes one thousandth of a unit. It’s commonly used in scientific and everyday measurements, such as milliliters for volume or millimeters for length. The milli prefix is particularly useful in biological sciences for expressing small quantities of substances or measurements.
What is the SI prefix for 10^-6?
The SI prefix for 10^-6 is micro. This prefix represents one millionth of a unit. It’s widely used in scientific fields, especially in biology and chemistry, for measuring very small quantities. For example, micrometers are used to measure cell sizes, and microliters are used in precise liquid measurements in laboratories.
What is the SI prefix for 10^-9?
The SI prefix for 10^-9 is nano. This prefix indicates one billionth of a unit. The nano prefix is crucial in fields like nanotechnology, molecular biology, and advanced physics. It’s used to describe extremely small entities such as nanoparticles, nanometers for measuring wavelengths of light, or nanoseconds in high-speed computing.
What are monomers?
Monomers are the smaller units from which larger molecules are made. They are the building blocks of polymers and can join together through chemical reactions to form long chains or complex structures. Examples include glucose for carbohydrates, amino acids for proteins, and nucleotides for nucleic acids. The properties of monomers influence the characteristics of the resulting polymers.
What are polymers?
Polymers are molecules made from a large number of monomers joined together in a chain. They can be natural (like proteins or cellulose) or synthetic (like plastics). The properties of polymers depend on the type of monomers and how they are linked. Polymers play crucial roles in biological systems and are widely used in manufacturing various materials.
What is polymerisation?
Polymerisation is the process by which monomers join to form polymers. This reaction typically involves the formation of covalent bonds between monomers, often through condensation or addition reactions. Polymerisation can occur naturally in living organisms or be induced artificially in industrial processes. The type of polymerisation affects the properties of the resulting polymer.
What are macromolecules?
Macromolecules are very large molecules containing 1000 or more atoms and have a high molecular mass. They are essential components of living organisms and include proteins, nucleic acids, polysaccharides, and some lipids. Macromolecules often have complex structures and diverse functions, from energy storage to genetic information encoding.
Are all macromolecules polymers?
No, not all macromolecules are polymers; polymers must consist of many repeating subunits. While many macromolecules like proteins and nucleic acids are polymers, some large molecules like complex lipids are not considered polymers because they don’t consist of repeating units. The distinction is important in understanding the structure and properties of different biological molecules.
What are the monomers of carbohydrates?
The monomers of carbohydrates are monosaccharides. These simple sugars, such as glucose, fructose, and galactose, can join together to form more complex carbohydrates. Monosaccharides typically have the formula (CH2O)n, where n is usually 3 to 7. They serve as energy sources and structural components in living organisms.
What are the components of lipids?
Lipids are composed of fatty acids, glycerol, and sometimes phosphate groups. Unlike other macromolecules, lipids are not true polymers. Fatty acids are long hydrocarbon chains with a carboxyl group, while glycerol is a three-carbon alcohol. These components combine in various ways to form different types of lipids, such as triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids.
What are the monomers of proteins?
The monomers of proteins are amino acids. There are 20 standard amino acids used by living organisms to build proteins. Each amino acid has a central carbon atom bonded to an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and a unique side chain. The sequence and properties of amino acids determine the structure and function of the resulting protein.
What are the monomers of nucleic acids?
The monomers of nucleic acids are nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of three parts: a five-carbon sugar (deoxyribose in DNA, ribose in RNA), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. The four bases in DNA are adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine, while in RNA, uracil replaces thymine. The sequence of nucleotides encodes genetic information.
What type of reaction forms macromolecules?
Macromolecules are formed during condensation reactions. In these reactions, two molecules join together with the loss of a small molecule, typically water. This process allows monomers to link together, forming the covalent bonds that create the backbone of polymers. Condensation reactions are essential for the synthesis of proteins, nucleic acids, and polysaccharides in living organisms.
What is removed during a condensation reaction?
Water is removed as part of a condensation reaction. This occurs when the hydroxyl group (-OH) from one molecule combines with a hydrogen atom (H) from another molecule, forming a water molecule (H2O) that is eliminated. The remaining parts of the two original molecules then join together, forming a new covalent bond. This process is crucial for the formation of many biological polymers.
What is the name of the bond formed between two monosaccharides?
A glycosidic bond is formed between two monosaccharides. This covalent bond typically forms between the anomeric carbon of one sugar and a hydroxyl group of another sugar, with the elimination of a water molecule. The type of glycosidic bond (e.g., α-1,4 or β-1,4) influences the structure and properties of the resulting polysaccharide.
What is the name of the bond formed between two amino acids?
A peptide bond is formed between two amino acids. This covalent bond forms between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another, with the release of a water molecule. Peptide bonds are the primary structural feature of proteins, creating the backbone of the polypeptide chain. The strength and planar nature of peptide bonds contribute to protein stability.
What is the name of the bond formed between nucleotides?
A phosphodiester bond is formed between nucleotides. This bond connects the 3’ carbon of one nucleotide’s sugar to the 5’ carbon of the next nucleotide’s sugar, with a phosphate group bridging them. Phosphodiester bonds form the backbone of DNA and RNA molecules, providing structural stability and allowing for the linear sequence of genetic information.
What type of reaction breaks down macromolecules into their monomers?
A hydrolysis reaction breaks down macromolecules into their monomers. This process is essentially the reverse of a condensation reaction, where water is added to break the bonds between monomers. Hydrolysis is crucial in digestion and cellular processes, allowing large molecules to be broken down for energy or to recycle their components.
What does hydrolysis mean?
Hydrolysis means ‘lyse’ (to break) and ‘hydro’ (with water). This term describes the process of breaking chemical bonds by adding water. In biological systems, hydrolysis is often catalyzed by enzymes to speed up the breakdown of macromolecules. It’s a fundamental process in digestion, energy metabolism, and the recycling of cellular components.
What is the general formula for monosaccharides?
The general formula for monosaccharides is C(n)H(2n)O(n), where ‘n’ is the number of carbon atoms. This formula reflects the 2:1 ratio of hydrogen to oxygen atoms, characteristic of carbohydrates. The value of ‘n’ typically ranges from 3 to 7 in naturally occurring monosaccharides. This formula helps in identifying and classifying different types of simple sugars.
How many carbon atoms does a triose molecule contain?
A triose molecule contains 3 carbon atoms. Trioses are the simplest monosaccharides and play important roles in cellular metabolism. An example of a triose is glyceraldehyde, which is an intermediate in glycolysis. The small size of trioses makes them quick to metabolize and transport within cells.
How many carbon atoms does a pentose molecule contain?
A pentose molecule contains 5 carbon atoms. Pentoses are crucial components of nucleic acids, with ribose being part of RNA and deoxyribose part of DNA. Other important pentoses include xylose and arabinose, which are found in plant cell walls. The five-carbon structure of pentoses gives them unique properties important for their biological roles.
How many carbon atoms does a hexose molecule contain?
A hexose molecule contains 6 carbon atoms. Hexoses are the most common monosaccharides in nature. Examples include glucose, fructose, and galactose. These six-carbon sugars are important energy sources in living organisms and serve as building blocks for many larger carbohydrates. The six-carbon structure allows for various isomeric forms with different properties.
What is the molecular formula of glucose?
The molecular formula of glucose is C6H12O6. This formula represents a hexose sugar with six carbon atoms, twelve hydrogen atoms, and six oxygen atoms. Glucose is the most abundant monosaccharide in nature and serves as a primary energy source for many organisms. Its structure allows it to exist in several isomeric forms, including its cyclic structures.
What are the two structurally different forms of glucose?
The two structurally different forms of glucose are alpha (α) glucose and beta (β) glucose. These are stereoisomers that differ in the orientation of the hydroxyl group on the first carbon atom. In α-glucose, this group is below the plane of the ring, while in β-glucose, it’s above the plane.
What polysaccharides are made from alpha glucose?
Starch and glycogen are made from molecules of alpha glucose. Alpha glucose has its hydroxyl group below the ring structure. This configuration allows for the formation of specific types of glycosidic bonds, resulting in the compact, branched structures of starch and glycogen. These polysaccharides are ideal for energy storage in plants and animals, respectively.
What polysaccharide is made from beta glucose?
Cellulose is made from molecules of beta glucose. Beta glucose has its hydroxyl group above the ring structure. This configuration leads to the formation of straight, unbranched chains in cellulose. The beta-1,4 glycosidic bonds between glucose molecules allow for hydrogen bonding between adjacent chains, contributing to cellulose’s strength and structural role in plant cell walls.
Why is glucose easily transportable in organisms?
Glucose is easily transportable due to its water solubility. The hydroxyl groups on glucose molecules can form hydrogen bonds with water molecules, making glucose hydrophilic. This property allows glucose to dissolve in blood and other bodily fluids, facilitating its transport throughout organisms. The solubility of glucose is crucial for its role as a primary energy source in many living things.
What are two functions of carbohydrates in organisms?
Carbohydrates function as essential energy storage molecules and as structural molecules. As energy storage, molecules like starch and glycogen can be quickly broken down to release glucose for cellular respiration. Structurally, carbohydrates like cellulose provide strength and support to plant cell walls. These dual roles make carbohydrates crucial for life processes in many organisms.
Why are starch and glycogen effective storage polysaccharides?
Starch and glycogen are effective storage polysaccharides because they are compact and insoluble. Their branched structures allow for a large amount of glucose to be stored in a small space, making them efficient energy reserves. Their insolubility prevents them from affecting cellular osmotic balance, which is crucial for maintaining cell integrity. These properties make them ideal for long-term energy storage in plants and animals.
Why is it important that storage polysaccharides are insoluble?
Insolubility is essential because soluble molecules will dissolve in cell cytoplasm, lowering the water potential and causing water to move into cells, which could cause them to burst. By being insoluble, starch and glycogen can be stored in high concentrations without disrupting the cell’s osmotic balance. This allows organisms to store large amounts of energy without compromising cellular function or structure.
What are three properties of cellulose that make it a good structural polysaccharide?
Cellulose is a good structural polysaccharide because it is strong and durable, insoluble and slightly elastic, and chemically inert. Its strength comes from the hydrogen bonding between cellulose chains, forming microfibrils. Insolubility and slight elasticity allow it to maintain cell shape while allowing some flexibility. Being chemically inert means it resists degradation, making it ideal for long-term structural support in plant cell walls.
Where is starch stored in plant cells?
Starch is stored as granules in chloroplasts. Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis in plant cells, where glucose is produced. Excess glucose is converted into starch for storage. These starch granules can be observed under a microscope and serve as a readily available energy source for the plant when needed. The location in chloroplasts allows for efficient storage and utilization of energy from photosynthesis.
What are the two different polysaccharides that construct starch?
Starch is constructed from amylose and amylopectin. These two polysaccharides have different structures and properties, which contribute to the overall characteristics of starch. Amylose is unbranched and forms a helical structure, while amylopectin is highly branched. The combination of these two forms allows starch to be an efficient and versatile energy storage molecule in plants.
What percentage of starch is typically amylose?
Amylose typically makes up 10-30% of starch. The exact percentage can vary depending on the plant species and variety. The lower proportion of amylose compared to amylopectin contributes to starch’s overall structure and properties. The helical structure of amylose allows for compact storage, while its unbranched nature makes it slower to digest than amylopectin.
What is the structure of amylose?
Amylose is an unbranched helix-shaped chain with 1,4 glycosidic bonds between α-glucose molecules. The helical structure is formed due to the angle of the glycosidic bonds between glucose units. This coiled shape allows amylose to be more compact, making it resistant to digestion and contributing to the overall structure of starch granules. The unbranched nature of amylose influences its interactions with other molecules and its role in starch properties.
What percentage of starch is typically amylopectin?
Amylopectin typically makes up 70-90% of starch. This higher proportion of amylopectin compared to amylose gives starch its characteristic properties. The branched structure of amylopectin allows for more points of hydrolysis, making it easier to break down for energy use. The exact percentage can vary among different plant species and varieties, influencing the overall properties of the starch.
What types of bonds does amylopectin contain?
Amylopectin contains 1,4 glycosidic bonds and 1,6 glycosidic bonds between α-glucose molecules. The 1,4 bonds form the main chain, while the 1,6 bonds create branch points approximately every 24-30 glucose units. This branched structure gives amylopectin its characteristic tree-like appearance and contributes to its properties, such as water solubility and ease of enzymatic breakdown.
What is the storage polysaccharide of animals and fungi?
Glycogen is the storage polysaccharide of animals and fungi. Like starch in plants, glycogen serves as an energy reserve. It is composed of α-glucose units linked by 1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic bonds, similar to amylopectin in starch. However, glycogen is more highly branched than amylopectin, allowing for faster mobilization of glucose when energy is needed.
How does the branching of glycogen compare to amylopectin?
Glycogen is more branched than amylopectin. While amylopectin has branch points approximately every 24-30 glucose units, glycogen has branch points about every 8-12 glucose units. This higher degree of branching in glycogen allows for more terminal ends where glucose can be easily added or removed, making it more readily accessible for quick energy release in animal cells.
Why is the high degree of branching in glycogen advantageous?
The high degree of branching in glycogen provides more free ends where glucose molecules can be removed by hydrolysis, allowing for quick breakdown to supply the higher metabolic needs of animal cells. This structure enables rapid mobilization of glucose when energy is needed, which is crucial for animals that may require sudden bursts of energy. The branching also allows for more compact storage of a large number of glucose units.
In which cells is glycogen stored as visible granules?
Glycogen is stored as visible granules in liver and muscle cells. In liver cells, glycogen serves as a glucose reserve for the entire body, helping to maintain blood glucose levels. In muscle cells, glycogen provides a readily available energy source for muscle contraction. These granules can be observed under an electron microscope and appear as dark, dense particles within the cytoplasm.
What is the structural carbohydrate found in plant cell walls?
Cellulose is the structural carbohydrate found in plant cell walls. It provides strength and rigidity to plant cells, allowing them to withstand osmotic pressure and giving plants their overall structure. Cellulose is composed of long, unbranched chains of β-glucose molecules linked by β-1,4 glycosidic bonds. These chains form hydrogen bonds with each other, creating strong microfibrils that contribute to the cell wall’s strength.
How do cellulose molecules differ from starch molecules in terms of structure?
Cellulose molecules are straight and unbranched, unlike starch molecules. Starch, particularly amylopectin, has a branched structure. Cellulose is made of β-glucose units linked by β-1,4 glycosidic bonds, while starch is composed of α-glucose units linked by α-1,4 and α-1,6 glycosidic bonds. This difference in structure results in very different properties and functions: cellulose provides structural support, while starch serves as an energy store.
What is the monomer of cellulose?
The monomer of cellulose is β-glucose. Unlike the α-glucose found in starch and glycogen, β-glucose has its hydroxyl group on the first carbon atom positioned above the plane of the ring. This configuration leads to the formation of straight chains in cellulose, as opposed to the helical structure found in starch. The use of β-glucose allows for the formation of hydrogen bonds between cellulose chains, contributing to its strength and insolubility.
