Carbohydrates and lipids Flashcards
1
Q
What type of bonds does carbon form?
A
Carbon forms covalent bonds. These bonds involve the sharing of electrons between atoms, creating strong connections within compounds. Covalent bonds are represented by short straight lines between atoms in molecular diagram.
2
Q
How is a covalent bond represented?
A
A covalent bond is represented by a short straight line between two atoms. This representation is a simplified way to show the sharing of electrons between atoms. In more detailed diagrams, electron dot structures may be used to show the actual electron arrangement.
3
Q
Why are electrons shared in covalent bonds?
A
Electrons are shared in covalent bonds to generate strong bonds within compounds. This sharing allows atoms to achieve a stable electron configuration, typically by filling their outer electron shells. The shared electrons are attracted to the nuclei of both atoms, creating a stable bond.
4
Q
What are the four major categories of biological molecules containing carbon?
A
The four major categories of biological molecules containing carbon are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. These molecules form the basis of all known life and are often referred to as biomolecules. Each category has distinct structures and functions within living organisms.
5
Q
How many electrons does carbon have in its outer shell?
A
Carbon has four electrons in its outer shell. This electron configuration is crucial for carbon’s ability to form up to four covalent bonds. It allows carbon to share electrons with various other elements, contributing to its versatility in forming organic compounds.
6
Q
How many covalent bonds can each carbon atom form?
A
Each carbon atom can form four covalent bonds. This is due to its four valence electrons in the outer shell. Carbon can form single, double, or triple bonds, allowing for a wide variety of molecular structures. This bonding capacity is key to carbon’s central role in organic chemistry.
7
Q
What types of molecules can carbon form with long branched chains?
A
Carbon can form molecules with long branched chains such as glycogen. These branched structures allow for compact storage of large numbers of subunits. Other examples include some proteins and complex carbohydrates. The branching increases the number of terminal ends, which can be important for the molecule’s function.
8
Q
What type of molecule does carbon form as long straight chains?
A
Carbon forms long straight chain molecules such as cellulose. These linear structures contribute to cellulose’s strength and insolubility, making it an ideal structural component in plant cell walls. Other examples of straight-chain carbon molecules include some fatty acids and certain synthetic polymers.
9
Q
What are examples of molecules containing cyclic single rings formed by carbon?
A
Pyrimidines such as thymine, uracil, and cytosine are examples of molecules containing cyclic single rings formed by carbon. These are important components of nucleic acids. The ring structure provides stability and allows for specific base-pairing in DNA and RNA molecules.
10
Q
What are examples of molecules with multiple rings formed by carbon?
A
Starches and purines (adenine and guanine) are examples of molecules with multiple rings formed by carbon. These complex structures play crucial roles in energy storage (starches) and genetic information storage (purines in DNA and RNA). The multiple ring structures contribute to the unique properties and functions of these molecules.
11
Q
What type of structure does carbon produce that allows the formation of varied compounds?
A
Carbon produces a tetrahedral structure that allows the formation of varied compounds. This three-dimensional arrangement of bonds around a central carbon atom enables the creation of diverse molecular shapes and isomers. The tetrahedral structure is fundamental to the vast array of organic compounds found in living systems.
12
Q
How many single covalent bonds can carbon atoms form?
A
Carbon atoms can form up to four single covalent bonds. This is due to carbon’s four valence electrons. Each of these bonds can be with different atoms, allowing carbon to act as a versatile building block for complex molecules. This bonding capacity is essential for the formation of the diverse array of organic compounds.
13
Q
What types of bonds does carbon dioxide contain?
A
Carbon dioxide contains two double bonds. The molecule consists of a central carbon atom double-bonded to two oxygen atoms (O=C=O). These double bonds are stronger than single bonds and contribute to the molecule’s linear shape and stability. This structure is crucial for CO2’s role in processes like photosynthesis and the carbon cycle.
14
Q
How many single covalent bonds does methane contain?
A
Methane contains four single covalent bonds. The central carbon atom is bonded to four hydrogen atoms in a tetrahedral arrangement. This structure gives methane its characteristic shape and properties. Methane is the simplest hydrocarbon and serves as a building block for more complex organic molecules.
15
Q
What allows unsaturated compounds to form?
A
Double and triple bonds can form with an adjacent carbon atom, allowing unsaturated compounds to form. These multiple bonds reduce the number of hydrogen atoms that can bond to the carbon atoms. Unsaturated compounds have distinct properties, such as increased reactivity, compared to their saturated counterparts.
16
Q
Name four functional groups that give organic compounds their individual properties.
A
Four functional groups that give organic compounds their individual properties are hydroxyl groups, carboxyl groups, amino groups, and phosphate groups. Each of these groups imparts specific chemical and physical properties to the molecules they are part of. For example, hydroxyl groups contribute to water solubility, while amino groups are crucial for protein structure and function.
17
Q
What does SI stand for in the context of scientific conventions?
A
SI stands for système international. This is the International System of Units, a standardized system of measurement used globally in science and technology. The SI system ensures consistency and reproducibility in scientific measurements and communications across different countries and disciplines.
18
Q
What is the SI prefix for 10^3?
A
The SI prefix for 10^3 is kilo. This prefix is used to denote one thousand of a unit. For example, 1 kilometer equals 1000 meters. The kilo prefix is commonly used in everyday measurements as well as scientific contexts, providing a convenient way to express large quantities.
19
Q
What is the SI prefix for 10^-2?
A
The SI prefix for 10^-2 is centi. This prefix represents one hundredth of a unit. A common example is the centimeter, which is one hundredth of a meter. The centi prefix is often used in everyday measurements, particularly for length, but is less common in scientific notation for very small quantities.
20
Q
What is the SI prefix for 10^-3?
A
The SI prefix for 10^-3 is milli. This prefix denotes one thousandth of a unit. It’s commonly used in scientific and everyday measurements, such as milliliters for volume or millimeters for length. The milli prefix is particularly useful in biological sciences for expressing small quantities of substances or measurements.
21
Q
What is the SI prefix for 10^-6?
A
The SI prefix for 10^-6 is micro. This prefix represents one millionth of a unit. It’s widely used in scientific fields, especially in biology and chemistry, for measuring very small quantities. For example, micrometers are used to measure cell sizes, and microliters are used in precise liquid measurements in laboratories.
22
Q
What is the SI prefix for 10^-9?
A
The SI prefix for 10^-9 is nano. This prefix indicates one billionth of a unit. The nano prefix is crucial in fields like nanotechnology, molecular biology, and advanced physics. It’s used to describe extremely small entities such as nanoparticles, nanometers for measuring wavelengths of light, or nanoseconds in high-speed computing.
23
Q
What are monomers?
A
Monomers are the smaller units from which larger molecules are made. They are the building blocks of polymers and can join together through chemical reactions to form long chains or complex structures. Examples include glucose for carbohydrates, amino acids for proteins, and nucleotides for nucleic acids. The properties of monomers influence the characteristics of the resulting polymers.
24
Q
What are polymers?
A
Polymers are molecules made from a large number of monomers joined together in a chain. They can be natural (like proteins or cellulose) or synthetic (like plastics). The properties of polymers depend on the type of monomers and how they are linked. Polymers play crucial roles in biological systems and are widely used in manufacturing various materials.
25
What is polymerisation?
Polymerisation is the process by which monomers join to form polymers. This reaction typically involves the formation of covalent bonds between monomers, often through condensation or addition reactions. Polymerisation can occur naturally in living organisms or be induced artificially in industrial processes. The type of polymerisation affects the properties of the resulting polymer.
26
What are macromolecules?
Macromolecules are very large molecules containing 1000 or more atoms and have a high molecular mass. They are essential components of living organisms and include proteins, nucleic acids, polysaccharides, and some lipids. Macromolecules often have complex structures and diverse functions, from energy storage to genetic information encoding.
27
Are all macromolecules polymers?
No, not all macromolecules are polymers; polymers must consist of many repeating subunits. While many macromolecules like proteins and nucleic acids are polymers, some large molecules like complex lipids are not considered polymers because they don't consist of repeating units. The distinction is important in understanding the structure and properties of different biological molecules.
28
What are the monomers of carbohydrates?
The monomers of carbohydrates are monosaccharides. These simple sugars, such as glucose, fructose, and galactose, can join together to form more complex carbohydrates. Monosaccharides typically have the formula (CH2O)n, where n is usually 3 to 7. They serve as energy sources and structural components in living organisms.
29
What are the components of lipids?
Lipids are composed of fatty acids, glycerol, and sometimes phosphate groups. Unlike other macromolecules, lipids are not true polymers. Fatty acids are long hydrocarbon chains with a carboxyl group, while glycerol is a three-carbon alcohol. These components combine in various ways to form different types of lipids, such as triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids.
30
What are the monomers of proteins?
The monomers of proteins are amino acids. There are 20 standard amino acids used by living organisms to build proteins. Each amino acid has a central carbon atom bonded to an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and a unique side chain. The sequence and properties of amino acids determine the structure and function of the resulting protein.
31
What are the monomers of nucleic acids?
The monomers of nucleic acids are nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of three parts: a five-carbon sugar (deoxyribose in DNA, ribose in RNA), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. The four bases in DNA are adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine, while in RNA, uracil replaces thymine. The sequence of nucleotides encodes genetic information.
32
What type of reaction forms macromolecules?
Macromolecules are formed during condensation reactions. In these reactions, two molecules join together with the loss of a small molecule, typically water. This process allows monomers to link together, forming the covalent bonds that create the backbone of polymers. Condensation reactions are essential for the synthesis of proteins, nucleic acids, and polysaccharides in living organisms.
33
What is removed during a condensation reaction?
Water is removed as part of a condensation reaction. This occurs when the hydroxyl group (-OH) from one molecule combines with a hydrogen atom (H) from another molecule, forming a water molecule (H2O) that is eliminated. The remaining parts of the two original molecules then join together, forming a new covalent bond. This process is crucial for the formation of many biological polymers.
34
What is the name of the bond formed between two monosaccharides?
A glycosidic bond is formed between two monosaccharides. This covalent bond typically forms between the anomeric carbon of one sugar and a hydroxyl group of another sugar, with the elimination of a water molecule. The type of glycosidic bond (e.g., α-1,4 or β-1,4) influences the structure and properties of the resulting polysaccharide.
35
What is the name of the bond formed between two amino acids?
A peptide bond is formed between two amino acids. This covalent bond forms between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another, with the release of a water molecule. Peptide bonds are the primary structural feature of proteins, creating the backbone of the polypeptide chain. The strength and planar nature of peptide bonds contribute to protein stability.
36
What is the name of the bond formed between nucleotides?
A phosphodiester bond is formed between nucleotides. This bond connects the 3' carbon of one nucleotide's sugar to the 5' carbon of the next nucleotide's sugar, with a phosphate group bridging them. Phosphodiester bonds form the backbone of DNA and RNA molecules, providing structural stability and allowing for the linear sequence of genetic information.
37
What type of reaction breaks down macromolecules into their monomers?
A hydrolysis reaction breaks down macromolecules into their monomers. This process is essentially the reverse of a condensation reaction, where water is added to break the bonds between monomers. Hydrolysis is crucial in digestion and cellular processes, allowing large molecules to be broken down for energy or to recycle their components.
38
What does hydrolysis mean?
Hydrolysis means 'lyse' (to break) and 'hydro' (with water). This term describes the process of breaking chemical bonds by adding water. In biological systems, hydrolysis is often catalyzed by enzymes to speed up the breakdown of macromolecules. It's a fundamental process in digestion, energy metabolism, and the recycling of cellular components.
39
What is the general formula for monosaccharides?
The general formula for monosaccharides is C(n)H(2n)O(n), where 'n' is the number of carbon atoms. This formula reflects the 2:1 ratio of hydrogen to oxygen atoms, characteristic of carbohydrates. The value of 'n' typically ranges from 3 to 7 in naturally occurring monosaccharides. This formula helps in identifying and classifying different types of simple sugars.
40
How many carbon atoms does a triose molecule contain?
A triose molecule contains 3 carbon atoms. Trioses are the simplest monosaccharides and play important roles in cellular metabolism. An example of a triose is glyceraldehyde, which is an intermediate in glycolysis. The small size of trioses makes them quick to metabolize and transport within cells.
41
How many carbon atoms does a pentose molecule contain?
A pentose molecule contains 5 carbon atoms. Pentoses are crucial components of nucleic acids, with ribose being part of RNA and deoxyribose part of DNA. Other important pentoses include xylose and arabinose, which are found in plant cell walls. The five-carbon structure of pentoses gives them unique properties important for their biological roles.
42
How many carbon atoms does a hexose molecule contain?
A hexose molecule contains 6 carbon atoms. Hexoses are the most common monosaccharides in nature. Examples include glucose, fructose, and galactose. These six-carbon sugars are important energy sources in living organisms and serve as building blocks for many larger carbohydrates. The six-carbon structure allows for various isomeric forms with different properties.
43
What is the molecular formula of glucose?
The molecular formula of glucose is C6H12O6. This formula represents a hexose sugar with six carbon atoms, twelve hydrogen atoms, and six oxygen atoms. Glucose is the most abundant monosaccharide in nature and serves as a primary energy source for many organisms. Its structure allows it to exist in several isomeric forms, including its cyclic structures.
44
What are the two structurally different forms of glucose?
The two structurally different forms of glucose are alpha (α) glucose and beta (β) glucose. These are stereoisomers that differ in the orientation of the hydroxyl group on the first carbon atom. In α-glucose, this group is below the plane of the ring, while in β-glucose, it's above the plane.
45
What polysaccharides are made from alpha glucose?
Starch and glycogen are made from molecules of alpha glucose. Alpha glucose has its hydroxyl group below the ring structure. This configuration allows for the formation of specific types of glycosidic bonds, resulting in the compact, branched structures of starch and glycogen. These polysaccharides are ideal for energy storage in plants and animals, respectively.
46
What polysaccharide is made from beta glucose?
Cellulose is made from molecules of beta glucose. Beta glucose has its hydroxyl group above the ring structure. This configuration leads to the formation of straight, unbranched chains in cellulose. The beta-1,4 glycosidic bonds between glucose molecules allow for hydrogen bonding between adjacent chains, contributing to cellulose's strength and structural role in plant cell walls.
47
Why is glucose easily transportable in organisms?
Glucose is easily transportable due to its water solubility. The hydroxyl groups on glucose molecules can form hydrogen bonds with water molecules, making glucose hydrophilic. This property allows glucose to dissolve in blood and other bodily fluids, facilitating its transport throughout organisms. The solubility of glucose is crucial for its role as a primary energy source in many living things.
48
What are two functions of carbohydrates in organisms?
Carbohydrates function as essential energy storage molecules and as structural molecules. As energy storage, molecules like starch and glycogen can be quickly broken down to release glucose for cellular respiration. Structurally, carbohydrates like cellulose provide strength and support to plant cell walls. These dual roles make carbohydrates crucial for life processes in many organisms.
49
Why are starch and glycogen effective storage polysaccharides?
Starch and glycogen are effective storage polysaccharides because they are compact and insoluble. Their branched structures allow for a large amount of glucose to be stored in a small space, making them efficient energy reserves. Their insolubility prevents them from affecting cellular osmotic balance, which is crucial for maintaining cell integrity. These properties make them ideal for long-term energy storage in plants and animals.
50
Why is it important that storage polysaccharides are insoluble?
Insolubility is essential because soluble molecules will dissolve in cell cytoplasm, lowering the water potential and causing water to move into cells, which could cause them to burst. By being insoluble, starch and glycogen can be stored in high concentrations without disrupting the cell's osmotic balance. This allows organisms to store large amounts of energy without compromising cellular function or structure.
51
What are three properties of cellulose that make it a good structural polysaccharide?
Cellulose is a good structural polysaccharide because it is strong and durable, insoluble and slightly elastic, and chemically inert. Its strength comes from the hydrogen bonding between cellulose chains, forming microfibrils. Insolubility and slight elasticity allow it to maintain cell shape while allowing some flexibility. Being chemically inert means it resists degradation, making it ideal for long-term structural support in plant cell walls.
52
Where is starch stored in plant cells?
Starch is stored as granules in chloroplasts. Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis in plant cells, where glucose is produced. Excess glucose is converted into starch for storage. These starch granules can be observed under a microscope and serve as a readily available energy source for the plant when needed. The location in chloroplasts allows for efficient storage and utilization of energy from photosynthesis.
53
What are the two different polysaccharides that construct starch?
Starch is constructed from amylose and amylopectin. These two polysaccharides have different structures and properties, which contribute to the overall characteristics of starch. Amylose is unbranched and forms a helical structure, while amylopectin is highly branched. The combination of these two forms allows starch to be an efficient and versatile energy storage molecule in plants.
54
What percentage of starch is typically amylose?
Amylose typically makes up 10-30% of starch. The exact percentage can vary depending on the plant species and variety. The lower proportion of amylose compared to amylopectin contributes to starch's overall structure and properties. The helical structure of amylose allows for compact storage, while its unbranched nature makes it slower to digest than amylopectin.
55
What is the structure of amylose?
Amylose is an unbranched helix-shaped chain with 1,4 glycosidic bonds between α-glucose molecules. The helical structure is formed due to the angle of the glycosidic bonds between glucose units. This coiled shape allows amylose to be more compact, making it resistant to digestion and contributing to the overall structure of starch granules. The unbranched nature of amylose influences its interactions with other molecules and its role in starch properties.
56
What percentage of starch is typically amylopectin?
Amylopectin typically makes up 70-90% of starch. This higher proportion of amylopectin compared to amylose gives starch its characteristic properties. The branched structure of amylopectin allows for more points of hydrolysis, making it easier to break down for energy use. The exact percentage can vary among different plant species and varieties, influencing the overall properties of the starch.
57
What types of bonds does amylopectin contain?
Amylopectin contains 1,4 glycosidic bonds and 1,6 glycosidic bonds between α-glucose molecules. The 1,4 bonds form the main chain, while the 1,6 bonds create branch points approximately every 24-30 glucose units. This branched structure gives amylopectin its characteristic tree-like appearance and contributes to its properties, such as water solubility and ease of enzymatic breakdown.
58
What is the storage polysaccharide of animals and fungi?
Glycogen is the storage polysaccharide of animals and fungi. Like starch in plants, glycogen serves as an energy reserve. It is composed of α-glucose units linked by 1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic bonds, similar to amylopectin in starch. However, glycogen is more highly branched than amylopectin, allowing for faster mobilization of glucose when energy is needed.
59
How does the branching of glycogen compare to amylopectin?
Glycogen is more branched than amylopectin. While amylopectin has branch points approximately every 24-30 glucose units, glycogen has branch points about every 8-12 glucose units. This higher degree of branching in glycogen allows for more terminal ends where glucose can be easily added or removed, making it more readily accessible for quick energy release in animal cells.
60
Why is the high degree of branching in glycogen advantageous?
The high degree of branching in glycogen provides more free ends where glucose molecules can be removed by hydrolysis, allowing for quick breakdown to supply the higher metabolic needs of animal cells. This structure enables rapid mobilization of glucose when energy is needed, which is crucial for animals that may require sudden bursts of energy. The branching also allows for more compact storage of a large number of glucose units.
61
In which cells is glycogen stored as visible granules?
Glycogen is stored as visible granules in liver and muscle cells. In liver cells, glycogen serves as a glucose reserve for the entire body, helping to maintain blood glucose levels. In muscle cells, glycogen provides a readily available energy source for muscle contraction. These granules can be observed under an electron microscope and appear as dark, dense particles within the cytoplasm.
62
What is the structural carbohydrate found in plant cell walls?
Cellulose is the structural carbohydrate found in plant cell walls. It provides strength and rigidity to plant cells, allowing them to withstand osmotic pressure and giving plants their overall structure. Cellulose is composed of long, unbranched chains of β-glucose molecules linked by β-1,4 glycosidic bonds. These chains form hydrogen bonds with each other, creating strong microfibrils that contribute to the cell wall's strength.
63
How do cellulose molecules differ from starch molecules in terms of structure?
Cellulose molecules are straight and unbranched, unlike starch molecules. Starch, particularly amylopectin, has a branched structure. Cellulose is made of β-glucose units linked by β-1,4 glycosidic bonds, while starch is composed of α-glucose units linked by α-1,4 and α-1,6 glycosidic bonds. This difference in structure results in very different properties and functions: cellulose provides structural support, while starch serves as an energy store.
64
What is the monomer of cellulose?
The monomer of cellulose is β-glucose. Unlike the α-glucose found in starch and glycogen, β-glucose has its hydroxyl group on the first carbon atom positioned above the plane of the ring. This configuration leads to the formation of straight chains in cellulose, as opposed to the helical structure found in starch. The use of β-glucose allows for the formation of hydrogen bonds between cellulose chains, contributing to its strength and insolubility.
65
How does β-glucose differ from α-glucose in structure?
In β-glucose, the hydroxyl group on carbon 1 sits above the carbon ring, whereas in α-glucose, it sits below the ring. This small difference in the orientation of the hydroxyl group leads to significant differences in the polymers formed. The β configuration in cellulose results in straight chains that can form hydrogen bonds between adjacent chains, while the α configuration in starch leads to helical structures in amylose and branching in amylopectin.
66
Why must every alternate molecule of β-glucose in cellulose invert itself?
Every alternate molecule of β-glucose must invert itself to form glycosidic bonds in cellulose. This inversion is necessary due to the orientation of the hydroxyl groups in β-glucose. By flipping every other glucose molecule, the hydroxyl groups are positioned correctly to form β-1,4 glycosidic bonds. This alternating pattern allows for the formation of long, straight chains and enables hydrogen bonding between adjacent cellulose molecules, contributing to its strength.
67
What type of bonds link several molecules of cellulose to form microfibrils?
Hydrogen bonds link several molecules of cellulose to form microfibrils. These hydrogen bonds form between the hydroxyl groups of adjacent cellulose chains. The linear structure of cellulose, resulting from β-1,4 glycosidic bonds, allows for extensive hydrogen bonding between chains. This inter-chain bonding gives cellulose its characteristic strength and insolubility, making it an ideal structural component for plant cell walls.
68
What are glycoproteins?
Glycoproteins are structures formed when carbohydrates and polypeptides combine via covalent bonds. They consist of a protein core with one or more carbohydrate chains attached. The carbohydrate component can vary in size from a single sugar to a complex oligosaccharide. Glycoproteins play crucial roles in cell recognition, cell adhesion, and as receptors for various molecules, including hormones and neurotransmitters.
69
Where are glycoproteins found in cells?
Glycoproteins form part of the structure of cell surface membranes. They are integral membrane proteins with their carbohydrate portions typically extending into the extracellular space. This location allows glycoproteins to play important roles in cell-cell recognition, cell signaling, and interactions with the extracellular environment. They are also found in various cellular organelles and can be secreted by cells.
70
What is another group of molecules that, like glycoproteins, form part of cell surface membranes?
Glycolipids, along with glycoproteins, form part of the structure of cell surface membranes. Glycolipids are lipids with attached carbohydrate groups. Like glycoproteins, they play roles in cell recognition and signaling. The combination of glycoproteins and glycolipids on cell surfaces creates a complex landscape known as the glycocalyx, which is important for cell-cell interactions and protection of the cell membrane.
71
Name four processes in which glycoproteins act as receptor molecules.
Glycoproteins act as receptor molecules in cell recognition and identification, receptors for cell signalling molecules, endocytosis, and cell adhesion and stabilization. In cell recognition, they help cells identify and interact with other cells. As receptors for signaling molecules, they bind to hormones or neurotransmitters to initiate cellular responses. In endocytosis, they can recognize and bind to substances for cellular uptake. For cell adhesion, they interact with other molecules to help cells stick together and maintain tissue structure.
72
How do glycoproteins relate to ABO blood types?
Glycoproteins can act as antigens which can determine ABO blood types. The ABO blood type system is based on the presence or absence of specific glycoproteins (or glycolipids) on the surface of red blood cells. These molecules, known as A and B antigens, are determined by the addition of specific sugar residues to a common precursor molecule. The presence or absence of these glycoprotein antigens determines an individual's blood type (A, B, AB, or O) and is crucial for blood transfusion compatibility.
73
What type of glucose monomers make up amylose?
Amylose is made up of α-glucose monomers. These α-glucose units are linked by α-1,4 glycosidic bonds, forming a long, unbranched chain. The α configuration of the glucose molecules results in a helical structure of the amylose chain. This structure contributes to amylose's properties, such as its ability to form complexes with iodine, which is used as a test for the presence of starch.
74
What types of glycosidic bonds are found in amylose?
Amylose contains 1,4 glycosidic bonds. Specifically, these are α-1,4 glycosidic bonds between α-glucose molecules. This type of bonding results in the formation of a long, unbranched chain that coils into a helical structure. The α-1,4 linkage allows for the compact helical conformation, which influences amylose's properties, such as its resistance to digestion and its role in the overall structure of starch granules.
75
What types of glycosidic bonds are found in amylopectin?
Amylopectin contains 1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic bonds between α-glucose molecules. The α-1,4 bonds form the main chain of the molecule, while the α-1,6 bonds create branch points. This combination of bonds results in amylopectin's characteristic branched structure, resembling a tree. The branching allows for more terminal ends where enzymes can act, making amylopectin more readily digestible than amylose.
76
How often do branches occur in amylopectin?
Branches occur approximately every 20 monomers in amylopectin. This means that about every 20 glucose units along the main chain, there is a branch point formed by an α-1,6 glycosidic bond. This branching pattern gives amylopectin its characteristic structure and properties. The frequency of branching influences the molecule's compactness, solubility, and susceptibility to enzymatic breakdown, all of which are important for its role as an energy storage molecule.
77
How often do branches occur in glycogen?
Branches occur approximately every 10 monomers in glycogen. This higher frequency of branching compared to amylopectin (which branches about every 20 monomers) results in a more compact and highly branched structure. The increased number of branch points in glycogen provides more sites for enzymes to act, allowing for rapid mobilization of glucose when energy is needed. This property is particularly important for animals, which may require quick access to energy reserves.
78
What type of glycosidic bonds are found in cellulose?
Cellulose contains 1,4 glycosidic bonds. Specifically, these are β-1,4 glycosidic bonds between β-glucose molecules. This type of bonding results in long, straight chains of glucose units. The β configuration allows these chains to lie parallel to each other and form hydrogen bonds between adjacent chains.
79
What is the significance of carbon's ability to form covalent bonds?
Carbon's ability to form covalent bonds allows it to create strong, stable molecules. This property enables carbon to be a component of large, complex biological molecules and form millions of different compounds, mainly with hydrogen and oxygen. The covalent bonds in carbon-based molecules contribute to the diversity and stability of life on Earth.
80
How does carbon's electron configuration contribute to its importance in biological molecules?
Carbon has four electrons in its outer shell, allowing each atom to form four covalent bonds. This electron configuration enables carbon to create a wide variety of chemical compounds by bonding with other carbon atoms or elements such as hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. The ability to form four bonds also allows carbon to produce tetrahedral structures, contributing to the three-dimensional shapes and diverse biological properties of carbon compounds.
81
What is the significance of functional groups in organic compounds?
Functional groups give organic compounds their individual properties. These groups, such as hydroxyl, carboxyl, amino, and phosphate groups, are responsible for the specific chemical behaviors and reactivity of organic molecules. The presence and arrangement of functional groups determine how a molecule interacts with other substances, influencing its role in biological processes.
82
Why are scientific conventions important in the global scientific community?
Scientific conventions, based on international agreement, are crucial for clear communication among scientists worldwide. They enable researchers from different countries to work on the same projects and understand each other's findings. An example of such a convention is the SI (système international) unit system, which includes prefixes like kilo (10^3), centi (10^-2), milli (10^-3), micro (10^-6), and nano (10^-9). These standardized units and prefixes ensure consistency in measurements and data reporting across the global scientific community.
83
How do condensation reactions contribute to the formation of biological polymers?
Condensation reactions form biological polymers by combining monomers with the removal of a water molecule. This process creates covalent bonds between the monomers, resulting in the formation of larger molecules. Examples include the formation of glycosidic bonds in polysaccharides, peptide bonds in polypeptides, and phosphodiester bonds in nucleic acids. Condensation reactions are essential for building the complex macromolecules necessary for life.
84
What is the importance of hydrolysis reactions in biological systems?
Hydrolysis reactions are crucial in biological systems for breaking down macromolecules into their constituent monomers. This process is essential for digestion and cellular metabolism. During hydrolysis, water is added to break covalent bonds, reversing the condensation reaction that formed the polymer. Examples include the breakdown of polysaccharides into monosaccharides, polypeptides into amino acids, and triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol. Hydrolysis enables organisms to utilize stored nutrients and recycle cellular components.
85
What is the nature of a covalent bond?
A covalent bond is a chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms. This type of bonding forms stable molecules by allowing atoms to share electrons to complete their outer shell, achieving a more stable electron configuration.
86
How many bonds can a carbon atom form?
A carbon atom can form up to four single covalent bonds or a combination of single and double bonds with other carbon atoms or atoms of other non-metallic elements. This is due to carbon's four valence electrons and its ability to share these electrons to form stable molecules.
87
What types of structures can carbon-based compounds form?
Carbon-based compounds can form diverse structures, including:
- Branched or unbranched chains
- Single or multiple rings
- Combinations of chains and rings
- This structural diversity is a key factor in the wide range of organic molecules found in living organisms.
88
Why is carbon important for life?
Carbon is crucial for life because:
- It can form up to four stable covalent bonds
- It can bond with itself and many other elements
- It can form a vast array of complex, diverse molecules
- It can create stable, yet flexible structures
- These properties allow carbon to be the backbone of all known life forms.
89
What are some examples of carbon-based molecules with different structures?
Examples of carbon-based molecules with different structures include:
- Glucose (unbranched chain)
- Fatty acids (unbranched chain)
- Cholesterol (multiple ring structure)
- Amino acids (branched chain)
- Benzene (single ring structure)
90
What are the SI metric unit prefixes mentioned in the syllabus point, and what do they represent?
The SI metric unit prefixes mentioned are:
- Kilo (k): 10³ or 1,000
- Centi (c): 10⁻² or 0.01
- Milli (m): 10⁻³ or 0.001
- Micro (μ): 10⁻⁶ or 0.000001
- Nano (n): 10⁻⁹ or 0.000000001
- These prefixes are based on international agreement and are used to denote multiples or fractions of units.
91
What is a condensation reaction?
A condensation reaction is a chemical process where two molecules combine to form a larger molecule, releasing a small molecule (usually water) as a byproduct. In biological systems, this reaction is used to link monomers together to form polymers, creating macromolecules essential for life.
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How are polysaccharides formed?
Polysaccharides are formed through condensation reactions between monosaccharide monomers. For example, glucose molecules are linked together by glycosidic bonds to form polysaccharides such as starch, glycogen, or cellulose. Each time a new monomer is added, a water molecule is released.
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Describe the formation of polypeptides.
Polypeptides are formed by condensation reactions between amino acid monomers. The carboxyl group (-COOH) of one amino acid reacts with the amino group (-NH2) of another, forming a peptide bond and releasing a water molecule. This process continues, linking many amino acids to create a polypeptide chain.
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How are nucleic acids synthesized?
Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) are synthesized through condensation reactions between nucleotide monomers. The 3' hydroxyl group of one nucleotide reacts with the 5' phosphate group of the next nucleotide, forming a phosphodiester bond and releasing a water molecule. This process creates the sugar-phosphate backbone of the nucleic acid.
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What is the significance of condensation reactions in biological systems?
Condensation reactions are crucial in biological systems as they allow the formation of large, complex molecules from simpler subunits. This process enables the creation of diverse macromolecules with specific functions, such as structural support (cellulose), energy storage (glycogen), genetic information storage (DNA), and catalysis (enzymes).
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How does the reverse process of a condensation reaction occur in biological systems?
The reverse process of a condensation reaction is called hydrolysis. In this reaction, water is added to break the bonds between monomers in a polymer. Hydrolysis is important for processes such as digestion, where large molecules are broken down into smaller, absorbable units.
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What is hydrolysis?
Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction where water molecules are used to break down larger molecules (polymers) into smaller units (monomers). In this process, a water molecule is split to provide the -H and -OH groups that are incorporated into the resulting monomers.
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Why is the reaction called hydrolysis?
The reaction is called hydrolysis because "hydro" refers to water, and "lysis" means to break apart. In this reaction, water molecules are used to break apart (split) larger molecules, hence the name hydrolysis.
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How does hydrolysis break down polymers?
During hydrolysis, a water molecule (H2O) is split into H+ and OH- ions. These ions are then incorporated into the polymer at the site where the bond between monomers is broken. This process effectively separates the monomers and adds the -H to one monomer and the -OH to the other.
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What are some examples of hydrolysis reactions in biological systems?
Examples of hydrolysis in biological systems include:
- Digestion of proteins into amino acids
- Breakdown of carbohydrates (e.g., starch) into simple sugars
- Hydrolysis of nucleic acids (DNA, RNA) into nucleotides
- Breakdown of lipids into fatty acids and glycerol
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Why is hydrolysis important in digestion?
Hydrolysis is crucial in digestion because it breaks down large, complex food molecules (polymers) into smaller, simpler molecules (monomers) that can be absorbed by the body. This process allows organisms to utilize the nutrients from food for energy and cellular functions.
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How does the hydrolysis reaction differ from the condensation reaction?
Hydrolysis is the opposite of a condensation reaction. In hydrolysis, water is used to break bonds and split larger molecules into smaller ones. In condensation, water is released as a byproduct when smaller molecules join to form larger ones.
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What are monosaccharides?
Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates, consisting of a single sugar unit. They can be classified as pentoses (5-carbon sugars) or hexoses (6-carbon sugars) and typically exist in ring forms in biological systems.
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How can pentoses and hexoses be recognized in molecular diagrams?
Pentoses and hexoses can be recognized in molecular diagrams by their ring structures. Pentoses form a five-membered ring, while hexoses form a six-membered ring. The number of carbon atoms in the ring and the presence of hydroxyl (-OH) groups are key identifying features.
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What are the key properties of glucose that make it important for biological systems?
Glucose has several important properties:
- Solubility in water, allowing easy transport in body fluids
- Chemical stability, making it suitable for energy storage
- High energy yield when oxidized, providing fuel for cellular processes
- Easily transportable across cell membranes
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How does the solubility of glucose contribute to its function?
Glucose's solubility in water allows it to be easily dissolved and transported in blood and other body fluids. This property enables glucose to be quickly distributed throughout an organism's body for energy use or storage.
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Why is the chemical stability of glucose important?
The chemical stability of glucose makes it suitable for energy storage. It can be stored in cells or converted to other forms (like glycogen) without spontaneously breaking down, ensuring a reliable energy source for organisms.
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How does the energy yield from glucose oxidation relate to its function?
When glucose is oxidized through cellular respiration, it yields a high amount of energy in the form of ATP. This high energy yield makes glucose an efficient fuel source for cellular processes, supporting various biological functions.
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What are the main energy storage polysaccharides in plants and animals?
In plants, the main energy storage polysaccharide is starch. In animals, it's glycogen.
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How do starch and glycogen achieve a compact structure?
Starch and glycogen achieve a compact structure through coiling and branching during polymerization. This allows for efficient storage of large amounts of glucose in a relatively small space.
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Why are starch and glycogen relatively insoluble?
Starch and glycogen are relatively insoluble due to their large molecular size. The extensive branching and coiling of these polysaccharides make it difficult for water molecules to surround and dissolve them.
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How are glucose monomers added to or removed from starch and glycogen?
Glucose monomers are added to starch and glycogen through condensation reactions, and removed through hydrolysis reactions. These processes allow for easy building or mobilization of energy stores as needed by the organism.
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Why is the alpha-glucose form important in energy storage polysaccharides?
Alpha-glucose monomers are used in starch and glycogen because they allow for easier addition and removal of glucose units. The alpha-1,4 and alpha-1,6 glycosidic bonds formed between these monomers can be readily broken down by enzymes when energy is needed.
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How does the structure of starch and glycogen relate to their function as energy storage compounds?
The compact, branched structure of starch and glycogen allows for efficient storage of large amounts of glucose. Their relative insolubility prevents osmotic effects in cells. The use of alpha-glucose monomers enables quick mobilization of glucose when energy is needed, making them ideal energy storage compounds.
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What is cellulose?
Cellulose is a structural polysaccharide found in plants. It is composed of long chains of beta-glucose monomers and serves as the primary component of plant cell walls.
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How are beta-glucose monomers oriented in cellulose?
In cellulose, beta-glucose monomers are oriented in an alternating pattern. This alternating orientation results in straight chains of glucose molecules, rather than the coiled structure seen in other polysaccharides like starch.
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How does the structure of cellulose contribute to its strength?
The straight chains formed by alternating beta-glucose monomers can be grouped into bundles. These bundles are then cross-linked with hydrogen bonds, creating a strong and rigid structure that provides support to plant cells.
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What type of bonds hold cellulose chains together?
Hydrogen bonds hold cellulose chains together. These bonds form between the hydroxyl groups of adjacent cellulose molecules, creating a network of interactions that strengthen the overall structure.
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How does the structure of cellulose relate to its function in plants?
The structure of cellulose, with its straight chains, bundling, and cross-linking via hydrogen bonds, provides plants with:
- Structural support for cell walls
- Rigidity and strength to withstand external pressures
- Resistance to compression and tension forces
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How does cellulose differ from energy storage polysaccharides like starch or glycogen?
Unlike starch or glycogen, which have branched structures for easy access to glucose units, cellulose has a linear structure with strong hydrogen bonding. This makes cellulose ideal for structural support but resistant to enzymatic breakdown for energy use.
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What are glycoproteins?
Glycoproteins are proteins with carbohydrate groups attached to them. They are important components of cell membranes and play a crucial role in cell-cell recognition.
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How do glycoproteins function in cell-cell recognition?
Glycoproteins act as unique identifiers on cell surfaces. Their specific carbohydrate chains can be recognized by complementary proteins on other cells, allowing cells to identify and interact with each other appropriately.
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What are ABO antigens and how do they relate to glycoproteins?
ABO antigens are glycoproteins found on the surface of red blood cells. They determine a person's blood type (A, B, AB, or O) and are a prime example of how glycoproteins function in cell recognition.
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How do ABO antigens contribute to blood type compatibility?
The immune system recognizes ABO antigens as "self" or "non-self." If a person receives blood with unfamiliar antigens, their immune system may attack the foreign blood cells, causing a potentially dangerous reaction.
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What is the significance of glycoprotein-based cell recognition in the immune system?
Glycoprotein-based cell recognition allows immune cells to distinguish between the body's own cells and foreign invaders. This is crucial for mounting appropriate immune responses and maintaining self-tolerance.
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How do glycoproteins contribute to other biological processes besides blood typing?
Glycoproteins are involved in various biological processes, including:
- Cell adhesion
- Signal transduction
- Hormone reception
- Embryonic development
- Viral and bacterial infections (as attachment sites)
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What are lipids?
Lipids are substances in living organisms that dissolve in non-polar solvents but are only sparingly soluble in aqueous solvents. They include fats, oils, waxes, and steroids.
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Why are lipids hydrophobic?
Lipids are hydrophobic due to their non-polar nature. They contain long hydrocarbon chains or ring structures that cannot form hydrogen bonds with water molecules.
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How does the hydrophobic nature of lipids affect their behavior in water?
The hydrophobic nature of lipids causes them to:
- Aggregate together in water, forming droplets or micelles
- Separate from water, forming distinct layers
- Have limited solubility in aqueous solutions
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What are some examples of lipids?
Examples of lipids include:
- Fats (solid at room temperature)
- Oils (liquid at room temperature)
- Waxes
- Steroids (e.g., cholesterol)
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How does the hydrophobic property of lipids contribute to their biological functions?
The hydrophobic property of lipids contributes to their biological functions by:
- Forming cell membranes (phospholipid bilayers)
- Providing energy storage (triglycerides)
- Creating water-resistant barriers (waxes on leaves and animal skin)
- Facilitating signaling processes (steroid hormones)
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What type of solvents can dissolve lipids?
Lipids dissolve in non-polar solvents such as:
- Ether
- Chloroform
- Benzene
- Acetone
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What is a triglyceride?
A triglyceride is a lipid molecule formed by the condensation reaction between one glycerol molecule and three fatty acid molecules. It is a major form of energy storage in living organisms.
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How is a triglyceride formed?
A triglyceride is formed through a condensation reaction. One glycerol molecule links with three fatty acid molecules, releasing three water molecules in the process. This creates ester bonds between the glycerol and fatty acids.
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What is a phospholipid?
A phospholipid is a type of lipid molecule formed by the condensation reaction between one glycerol molecule, two fatty acid molecules, and one phosphate group. Phospholipids are crucial components of cell membranes.
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How is a phospholipid formed?
A phospholipid is formed through a condensation reaction. One glycerol molecule links with two fatty acid molecules and one phosphate group. This process releases three water molecules and creates ester bonds between the components.
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What is the key difference between triglycerides and phospholipids in terms of their formation?
The key difference is in the components that bond with glycerol. Triglycerides use three fatty acid molecules, while phospholipids use two fatty acid molecules and one phosphate group.
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Why are condensation reactions important in the formation of these lipids?
Condensation reactions are crucial in forming triglycerides and phospholipids because they allow the joining of smaller molecules (glycerol, fatty acids, phosphate groups) into larger, more complex molecules. This process releases water and creates the ester bonds that give these lipids their unique properties and functions.
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What are saturated fatty acids?
Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds between carbon atoms in their hydrocarbon chain. All carbon atoms are "saturated" with hydrogen atoms. They typically have higher melting points and are solid at room temperature.
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What are monounsaturated fatty acids?
Monounsaturated fatty acids have one double bond (C=C) in their hydrocarbon chain. They have lower melting points compared to saturated fatty acids and are often liquid at room temperature.
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What are polyunsaturated fatty acids?
Polyunsaturated fatty acids have two or more double bonds (C=C) in their hydrocarbon chain. They have the lowest melting points among the three types and are liquid at room temperature.
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How does the number of double bonds affect the melting point of fatty acids?
As the number of double bonds increases, the melting point decreases. Saturated fatty acids have the highest melting points, followed by monounsaturated, and then polyunsaturated fatty acids with the lowest melting points.
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How does the prevalence of fatty acid types differ between plants and endotherms?
Plants tend to store energy in oils, which are rich in unsaturated fatty acids (mono- and polyunsaturated). These remain liquid at lower temperatures. Endotherms typically store energy as fats, which are richer in saturated fatty acids. These are solid at body temperature, allowing for more compact energy storage.
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Why do endotherms prefer saturated fats for energy storage?
Endotherms prefer saturated fats because they have higher melting points and remain solid at body temperature. This allows for more compact energy storage in adipose tissue, which is beneficial for insulation and energy reserves.
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What are triglycerides?
Triglycerides are lipid molecules formed by the condensation of one glycerol molecule with three fatty acid molecules. They are the main form of energy storage in adipose tissues.
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How do triglycerides function in long-term energy storage?
Triglycerides are well-suited for long-term energy storage due to their high energy density, compact storage without water, and chemical stability. These properties allow organisms to store large amounts of energy in a small volume for extended periods.
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What is the role of triglycerides in thermal insulation?
Triglycerides in adipose tissue provide effective thermal insulation due to their low thermal conductivity. The fatty acid chains in triglycerides conduct heat poorly, helping to maintain body temperature by reducing heat loss to the environment.
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How do triglycerides in adipose tissue relate to body temperature regulation?
Triglycerides in adipose tissue form an insulating layer beneath the skin, which helps maintain a stable body temperature by reducing heat loss. This is particularly important for endothermic animals in cold environments.
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What is blubber and how does it relate to triglycerides?
Blubber is a thick layer of adipose tissue rich in triglycerides, found in marine mammals. It provides both insulation and buoyancy in cold water environments, allowing these animals to maintain their body temperature in harsh conditions.
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How do triglycerides in adipose tissue relate to habitat adaptation?
The amount and distribution of triglycerides in adipose tissue can vary based on an animal's habitat. For example, animals in cold climates often have thicker layers of subcutaneous fat for insulation, while those in warmer climates may have less.
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What is the structure of a phospholipid?
A phospholipid consists of a hydrophilic head (containing a phosphate group) and two hydrophobic fatty acid tails. This structure makes phospholipids amphipathic molecules.
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What does "amphipathic" mean?
Amphipathic refers to molecules that have both hydrophilic (water-loving) and hydrophobic (water-fearing) regions. Phospholipids are amphipathic due to their hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails.
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How do phospholipids arrange themselves in water?
In water, phospholipids spontaneously form bilayers. The hydrophilic heads face outward, interacting with water molecules, while the hydrophobic tails face inward, away from water.
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Why do phospholipids form bilayers?
Phospholipids form bilayers to minimize contact between their hydrophobic tails and water. This arrangement is energetically favorable and stabilizes the structure in aqueous environments.
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What is the significance of phospholipid bilayers in biology?
Phospholipid bilayers form the basis of cell membranes. They create a selectively permeable barrier that separates the cell's internal environment from the external environment, while allowing controlled movement of substances.
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How does the amphipathic nature of phospholipids contribute to membrane fluidity?
The amphipathic nature allows phospholipids to move laterally within the membrane while maintaining the overall bilayer structure. This contributes to membrane fluidity, which is essential for various cellular processes.
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What are steroids?
Steroids are a class of lipids characterized by a structure consisting of four fused carbon rings. They are non-polar and hydrophobic, allowing them to easily pass through cell membranes.
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Why can non-polar steroids pass through the phospholipid bilayer?
Non-polar steroids can pass through the phospholipid bilayer because they are hydrophobic and can dissolve in the lipid portion of the membrane. This allows them to diffuse freely across the membrane without the need for transport proteins.
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What is an example of a steroid hormone?
Oestradiol is an example of a steroid hormone. It plays a key role in regulating various physiological processes, including reproductive functions in females.
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How does testosterone function as a steroid hormone?
Testosterone is another example of a steroid hormone that regulates male reproductive functions, muscle mass, and secondary sexual characteristics. Its non-polar nature allows it to easily enter target cells and bind to intracellular receptors.
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How can one identify steroids from molecular diagrams?
Steroids can be identified from molecular diagrams by their characteristic four-ring structure. The presence of functional groups attached to these rings may also help distinguish different types of steroids.
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What is the significance of steroids being able to pass through cell membranes?
The ability of steroids to pass through cell membranes is significant because it allows them to exert their effects on target cells by binding to intracellular receptors, leading to changes in gene expression and cellular function. This mechanism is crucial for their roles as hormones in regulating various biological processes.
