CARBOHYDRATES Flashcards
1
Q
Most abundant organic molecules in nature
A
CARBOHYDRATES
2
Q
are the major food and energy source of
the body and are stored primarily in the two most
A
Carbohydrates
3
Q
carbohydrates are stored primarily in the two most
important systems:
A
Liver and muscle glycogen
4
Q
Show a linear structure
A
Fischer projection
5
Q
Shows a cyclic structure as viewed from the
side showing the stereochemistry or location of
the attached molecules to the monosaccharide
ring
A
Haworth projection
6
Q
Possible to have a boat type confirmation
where C1 is tilted upwards in the same
direction as the C4 which is less common
A
Chair confirmation
7
Q
One sugar unit
A
Monosaccharides
8
Q
Two sugar units
A
Disaccharides
9
Q
chaining of two or ten sugar units
A
Oligosaccharides
10
Q
More than 10 units of sugar molecule
A
Polysaccharides:
11
Q
Major energy source
A
glucose
12
Q
The storage form of energy
A
glycogen
13
Q
Component of the cell membranes
A
glycoprotein
14
Q
Structural components in______
A
plants, bacteria and insect
15
Q
carbohydrates containing compound _______ (3)
A
C, H, O
16
Q
Give me the four number of sugar units
A
Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, Oligosaccharides, Polysaccharides
MDOP
17
Q
monosaccharides example:
A
Glucose, fructose, galactose
18
Q
disaccharides example:
A
Maltose, lactose, sucrose
19
Q
Polysaccharides example:
A
starch and glycogen
20
Q
Each sugar molecule is together by:
A
glycosidic bond
21
Q
3 carbons
A
Trioses
22
Q
4 carbons
A
Tetroses
23
Q
5 carbons
A
pentoses
24
Q
6 carbons
A
hexoses
25
7 carbons
heptoses
26
Monosaccharides (hexoses)
Glucose
Fructose
Galactose
Mannose
GFGM
27
Mono-saccharides
(Pentoses)
Ribose
Ribulose
Xylulose
RRX
28
2 forms of carbohydrate are
aldoses and ketoses
29
The functional group of aldose is
aldehyde
30
Carbonyl carbon at the end
Aldose
31
The functional group of ketone is
ketone
32
Carbonyl carbon at any other position
ketose
33
example of ketose
fructose
34
carbonyl group is at the end
Glucose
34
carbonyl group is at the end
Glucose
35
is located in any other position
except the terminal or end part
ketoses carbonyl group
36
________ = tip
aldose
37
__________= any position except terminal
ketose
38
Sturdy of spatial arrange of an atom; 3D or 4D
configuration of a carbohydrate; how the molecules are
being arranged in a 3D or 4D configuration
Stereochemistry of the compound
39
Compounds that have the same chemical
formula
Isomers
40
Isomers that differ in configuration around only
one specific carbon atom (except the carbonyl
carbon)
Epimers
41
__________ are all isomers of one another because they
have the same formula C6H12O6
glucose, fructose, galactose, and mannose
GFGM
42
glucose and galactose (differ only in
position of -OH in C4) glucose and mannose
(differ only in position of -OH in C2
epimers
43
__________ = differ only -OH in C4
Glucose and Galactose
44
___________= differ only -OH in C2
Glucose and Mannose
45
Optical isomers or stereoisomers
Enantiomers
46
Pairs of structures that are mirror images of
each other
Enantiomers
47
___________ are designated as a D-sugar
(Dextrorotatory) and an L-sugar (Levorotatory)
enantiomers
48
___________ are more common
D-sugars
49
In aqueous solutions, monosaccharides with
five or more carbon atoms in the backbone
occur predominantly as cyclic (ring) structures
anomers
50
monosaccharide structure with a
five-membered ring
Furanose
51
monosaccharide structure with a
six-membered ring
Pyranose
52
Rotation around the carbonyl carbon produces
anomers, which are labeled a (alpha) and b
(beta) anomers
anomers
53
can be identified by identifying the carbonyl
atom
Anomere
54
(if below ang OH
Label alpha
55
If above ang OH
beta
56
Same chemical formula regardless of structure
Isomers
57
Same itsura but naiiba lang ang position OH ng
isang carbon
Epimers
58
Mirror images
Enantiomer
59
Na flip lang ang position ng OH
Enantiomer
60
Iba ang position ng OH sa anomeric na carbon
Anomers
61
Baba ang OH
● “Ababa
Alpha
62
Nasa taas ng anomeric
● “betaas”
Beta
63
● Only Monosaccharides are absorbed
Absorption
64
secondary active transport):
for glucose and galactose
■ SGLT-1 luminal side
65
(facilitated diffusion): for
fructose
GLUT 5 - luminal side
66
(facilitated diffusion): all
types of monosaccharides
GLUT-2 - basolateral side
67
■ Will transfer glucose and galactose
SGLT - 1
68
■ Transport sodium
SGLT - 1
69
Transfer fructose towards epithelial
cells
○ GLUT-5
70
Only fructose
○ GLUT-5
71
Transfer all types of
monosaccharides (glucose, galactose
and fruc) inside SI.
○ GLUT-2
72
Metabolism of glucose molecule to pyruvate, or
lactate for production of energy.
Glycolysis
73
Formation of Glu-6-phosphate from non
carbohydrate source = Lactate, glycerol and
amino acid
● Gluconeogenesis
74
increased sugar level
Well fed state
75
decreased sugar level
Fasting state
76
Breakdown of glycogen to glucose for energy
glycogenolysis
77
○ Conversion of glucose to glycogen for storage
● Glycogenesis
78
○ Conversion of carbohydrates to fatty acids
● Lipogenesis
79
○ Decomposition of fats
● Lipolysis
80
● Brief fast
Glucose is supplied to the ECF from the liver
through glycogenolysis
81
Fasting period longer than 1 day
Glucose is synthesized from noncarbohydrate
sources (gluconeogenesis)
82
Control of blood glucose is under 2 major hormones:
1. Insulin
2. Glucagon
83
Hormone Regulation (9)
1. Insulin
2. Glucagon
3. Epinephrine
4. Cortisol
5. Growth hormone
6. ACTH
7. Thyroxine
8. Somatostatin
9. Incretins
84
Beta-cells of islets of Langerhans
INSULIN
85
Stimulus of Insulin
Hyperglycemia
86
How is insulin produced?
Initially synthesized as a precursor polypeptide:
__________
Subsequent protolytic processing removes the amino-terminal
signal peptide giving rise to the________________
After few processing,____________ is released
Preproinsulin, proinsulin, insulin and c peptide
87
Pancreas - Exocrine enzymes:
: Amylase and Lipase
88
Pancreas- Endocrine
Glucagon (alpha cells)
■ Insulin (Beta-cells)
■ Somatostatin (delta cells)
■ Pancreatic polypeptide (PP or F cells)
89
● Produced in the Alpha-cells of islets of Langerhans
2. GLUCAGON
90
Stimulus of glucagon
during stress, fasting states
91
Actions : Enhances glycogenolysis (cause breakdown of
glycogen forming glucose) and
gluconeogenesis (formation of glucose from
another non-carbohydrate source)
○ ↑blood glucose level
Glucagon
92
● Flight or flight hormone
3. EPINEPHRINE
93
● Produced in Adrenal medulla
3. EPINEPHRINE
94
● Stimulus: Released during stress
95
Epinephrine stimulus:
● Stimulus: Released during stress
96
Actions of Epinephrine
↑ blood glucose level
○ Inhibits insulin secretion
○ ↑ glycogenolysis
○ promoting lipolysis
97
Adrenal cortex (zona fasciculata)
4. CORTISOL
98
Cortisol action:
○ On stimulation by ACTH ↑ blood glucose level
○ Decreasing entry of glucose into the cell
○ Increasing gluconeogenesis, liver
glycogenolysis, and lipolysis
99
● Anterior pituitary gland
5. GROWTH HORMONE
100
Anterior pituitary gland
ACTH
101
Stimulus: decreased cortisol levels
ACTH
102
ACTH actions;
Stimulates cortisol release thus increases
plasma glucose
○ ↑ glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis, ↑ blood
glucose leve
103
Thyroid gland (follicular cells)
7. THYROXINE
104
Thyroxine stimulus:
● Stimulus: Release of Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
105
Actions of thyroxine :
↑ glycogenolysis,
○ ↑ gluconeogenesis
○ ↑ intestinal absorption of glucose
106
Delta-cells of islets of Langerhans of the pancreas & GI
cells
8. SOMATOSTATIN
107
● D cells of duodenum
8. SOMATOSTATIN
108
8. SOMATOSTATIN
INHIBITORY HORMONE to Insulin, glucagon,
growth hormone, and other endocrine
hormones
○ “somatoSTOPin”
109
Gut hormones secreted by the enteroendocrine cells
minutes
9. INCRETINS
110
● after eating
9. INCRETINS
111
Example of incretin
Glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP)
○ Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1)
112
○ GI surgery
○ Mild diabetes
● Postprandial hypoglycemia
113
○ Insulin-producing pancreatic islet tumor
● Fasting hypoglycemia
114
Excessive alcohol consumption,
drinking heavily without eating can
block your liver from releasing stored
glucose into the bloodstream causing
hypoglycemia
○ ROH consumption
115
It is not just one disease but a group of metabolic
disorders
Diabetes Mellitus (DM)
116
t refers to a group of common metabolic disorders that
share the phenotype of hyperglycemia
Diabetes Mellitus (DM)
117
Complete or near Total Insulin
Deficiency
TYPE 1 DIABETES
MELLITUS
118
Heterogenous group of disorders
characterized by variable degrees of
insulin resistance, impaired insulin
secretion, and increase glucose
production
TYPE 2 DIABETES
MELLITUS
119
Insulin resistance related to
metabolic changes of late
pregnancy
GESTATIONAL DIABETES
MELLITUS
120
Maturity-onset diabetes of the
young, pancreatic exocrine disease,
cystic fibrosis related DM, viral
infection
SPECIFIC TYPES
121
is the result of interactions of genetic,
environmental and immunologic factors that ultimately
lead to the destruction of the pancreatic beta cells and
insulin deficiency.
Type 1 diabetes mellitus
122
It can develop at any age, develops most commonly
before 20 years of age
type 1 diabetes mellitus
123
Type 1 can be triggered
Infection
■ Environmental factors
124
● Activation of macrophage with release of IL-1 and TNF a
IFN gamma
125
● Activation of autoantigen-specific T cytotoxic (CD8) cells
IL-2
126
Activation of B lymphocytes to produce islet cells
antibodies and antiGAD 65 antibodies
IL-4
126
Activation of B lymphocytes to produce islet cells
antibodies and antiGAD 65 antibodies
IL-4
127
is characterized by impaired insulin secretion,
insulin resistance, excessive hepatic glucose production,
and abnormal fat metabolism
Type 2 DM
128
● Genetic predisposition
● Obesity
● Lifestyle factors
Insulin resistance:
129
● Increase the output insulin→ normoglycemia
Compensatory beta hyperplasia
130
Lead to impaired glucose tolerance
● Dahan dahan ng tumataas ang glucose level sa body
Beta cell failure at an early stage
131
● Diabetes mellitus
Later stage: beta failure
132
○ Diet/lifestyle
○ Exercise
○ Medication
● Glycemic control
133
○ Dyslipidemia
○ HypertensionObesity
○ Coronary heart disease
● Treated associated conditions
134
○ Retinopathy
○ Cardiovascular disease
○ Nephropathy
○ Neuropathy
○ Other complications
● Screen for/manage complications of diabetes
135
Excessive urination
Polyuria
136
Increased appetite
Polyphagia
137
Excessive thirst
Polydipsia
138
glucose will attract more water
Osmotic diuresis
139
most common non reducing sugar
sucrose
140
smallest carbohydrates
glyceraldehyde - three carbon compound
141
This structure is formed when the functional (carbonyl) group (ketone or
aldehyde) reacts with an alcohol group on the same sugar to form a ring called _________
hemiketal or a hemiacetal ring,
142
The central carbons of a carbohydrate are ___________
asymmetric
143
This allows for various spatial
arrangements around each asymmetric carbon (also called stereogenic centers)
forming molecules called ___________
stereoisomers
144
___________have the same order and
types of bonds but different spatial arrangements and different properties.
Stereoisomers
145
aldohexose contains ______ asymmetric
carbons, there are
four
146
A monosaccharide is assigned to
the D or the L series according to the configuration at the highest numbered
asymmetric carbon.
Dextrorotatory sugar and Levorotatory sugar
147
This asymmetrically substituted carbon atom is called the ________
“configurational atom” or chiral center.
148
are images that cannot be overlapped and are
nonsuperimposable.
enantiomers
149
Most sugars in humans are in the ___-form.
Dextrorotatory sugar form - D form
