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CLIN CHEM LEC > CARBOHYDRATES > Flashcards

CARBOHYDRATES Flashcards

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1
Q

Most abundant organic molecules in nature

A

CARBOHYDRATES

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2
Q

are the major food and energy source of
the body and are stored primarily in the two most

A

Carbohydrates

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3
Q

carbohydrates are stored primarily in the two most
important systems:

A

Liver and muscle glycogen

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4
Q

Show a linear structure

A

Fischer projection

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5
Q

Shows a cyclic structure as viewed from the
side showing the stereochemistry or location of
the attached molecules to the monosaccharide
ring

A

Haworth projection

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6
Q

Possible to have a boat type confirmation
where C1 is tilted upwards in the same
direction as the C4 which is less common

A

Chair confirmation

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7
Q

One sugar unit

A

Monosaccharides

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8
Q

Two sugar units

A

Disaccharides

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9
Q

chaining of two or ten sugar units

A

Oligosaccharides

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10
Q

More than 10 units of sugar molecule

A

Polysaccharides:

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11
Q

Major energy source

A

glucose

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12
Q

The storage form of energy

A

glycogen

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13
Q

Component of the cell membranes

A

glycoprotein

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14
Q

Structural components in______

A

plants, bacteria and insect

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15
Q

carbohydrates containing compound _______ (3)

A

C, H, O

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16
Q

Give me the four number of sugar units

A

Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, Oligosaccharides, Polysaccharides

MDOP

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17
Q

monosaccharides example:

A

Glucose, fructose, galactose

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18
Q

disaccharides example:

A

Maltose, lactose, sucrose

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19
Q

Polysaccharides example:

A

starch and glycogen

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20
Q

Each sugar molecule is together by:

A

glycosidic bond

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21
Q

3 carbons

A

Trioses

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22
Q

4 carbons

A

Tetroses

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23
Q

5 carbons

A

pentoses

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24
Q

6 carbons

A

hexoses

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25
Q

7 carbons

A

heptoses

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26
Q

Monosaccharides (hexoses)

A

Glucose
Fructose
Galactose
Mannose

GFGM

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27
Q

Mono-saccharides
(Pentoses)

A

Ribose
Ribulose
Xylulose

RRX

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28
Q

2 forms of carbohydrate are

A

aldoses and ketoses

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29
Q

The functional group of aldose is

A

aldehyde

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30
Q

Carbonyl carbon at the end

A

Aldose

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31
Q

The functional group of ketone is

A

ketone

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32
Q

Carbonyl carbon at any other position

A

ketose

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33
Q

example of ketose

A

fructose

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34
Q

carbonyl group is at the end

A

Glucose

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34
Q

carbonyl group is at the end

A

Glucose

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35
Q

is located in any other position
except the terminal or end part

A

ketoses carbonyl group

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36
Q

________ = tip

A

aldose

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37
Q

__________= any position except terminal

A

ketose

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38
Q

Sturdy of spatial arrange of an atom; 3D or 4D
configuration of a carbohydrate; how the molecules are
being arranged in a 3D or 4D configuration

A

Stereochemistry of the compound

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39
Q

Compounds that have the same chemical
formula

A

Isomers

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40
Q

Isomers that differ in configuration around only
one specific carbon atom (except the carbonyl
carbon)

A

Epimers

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41
Q

__________ are all isomers of one another because they
have the same formula C6H12O6

A

glucose, fructose, galactose, and mannose
GFGM

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42
Q

glucose and galactose (differ only in
position of -OH in C4) glucose and mannose
(differ only in position of -OH in C2

A

epimers

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43
Q

__________ = differ only -OH in C4

A

Glucose and Galactose

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44
Q

___________= differ only -OH in C2

A

Glucose and Mannose

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45
Q

Optical isomers or stereoisomers

A

Enantiomers

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46
Q

Pairs of structures that are mirror images of
each other

A

Enantiomers

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47
Q

___________ are designated as a D-sugar
(Dextrorotatory) and an L-sugar (Levorotatory)

A

enantiomers

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48
Q

___________ are more common

A

D-sugars

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49
Q

In aqueous solutions, monosaccharides with
five or more carbon atoms in the backbone
occur predominantly as cyclic (ring) structures

A

anomers

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50
Q

monosaccharide structure with a
five-membered ring

A

Furanose

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51
Q

monosaccharide structure with a
six-membered ring

A

Pyranose

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52
Q

Rotation around the carbonyl carbon produces
anomers, which are labeled a (alpha) and b
(beta) anomers

A

anomers

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53
Q

can be identified by identifying the carbonyl
atom

A

Anomere

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54
Q

(if below ang OH

A

Label alpha

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55
Q

If above ang OH

A

beta

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56
Q

Same chemical formula regardless of structure

A

Isomers

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57
Q

Same itsura but naiiba lang ang position OH ng
isang carbon

A

Epimers

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58
Q

Mirror images

A

Enantiomer

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59
Q

Na flip lang ang position ng OH

A

Enantiomer

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60
Q

Iba ang position ng OH sa anomeric na carbon

A

Anomers

61
Q

Baba ang OH
● “Ababa

A

Alpha

62
Q

Nasa taas ng anomeric
● “betaas”

A

Beta

63
Q

● Only Monosaccharides are absorbed

A

Absorption

64
Q

secondary active transport):
for glucose and galactose

A

■ SGLT-1 luminal side

65
Q

(facilitated diffusion): for
fructose

A

GLUT 5 - luminal side

66
Q

(facilitated diffusion): all
types of monosaccharides

A

GLUT-2 - basolateral side

67
Q

■ Will transfer glucose and galactose

A

SGLT - 1

68
Q

■ Transport sodium

A

SGLT - 1

69
Q

Transfer fructose towards epithelial
cells

A

○ GLUT-5

70
Q

Only fructose

A

○ GLUT-5

71
Q

Transfer all types of
monosaccharides (glucose, galactose
and fruc) inside SI.

A

○ GLUT-2

72
Q

Metabolism of glucose molecule to pyruvate, or
lactate for production of energy.

A

Glycolysis

73
Q

Formation of Glu-6-phosphate from non
carbohydrate source = Lactate, glycerol and
amino acid

A

● Gluconeogenesis

74
Q

increased sugar level

A

Well fed state

75
Q

decreased sugar level

A

Fasting state

76
Q

Breakdown of glycogen to glucose for energy

A

glycogenolysis

77
Q

○ Conversion of glucose to glycogen for storage

A

● Glycogenesis

78
Q

○ Conversion of carbohydrates to fatty acids

A

● Lipogenesis

79
Q

○ Decomposition of fats

A

● Lipolysis

80
Q

● Brief fast

A

Glucose is supplied to the ECF from the liver
through glycogenolysis

81
Q

Fasting period longer than 1 day

A

Glucose is synthesized from noncarbohydrate
sources (gluconeogenesis)

82
Q

Control of blood glucose is under 2 major hormones:

A
  1. Insulin
  2. Glucagon
83
Q

Hormone Regulation (9)

A
  1. Insulin
  2. Glucagon
  3. Epinephrine
  4. Cortisol
  5. Growth hormone
  6. ACTH
  7. Thyroxine
  8. Somatostatin
  9. Incretins
84
Q

Beta-cells of islets of Langerhans

A

INSULIN

85
Q

Stimulus of Insulin

A

Hyperglycemia

86
Q

How is insulin produced?
Initially synthesized as a precursor polypeptide:
__________

Subsequent protolytic processing removes the amino-terminal
signal peptide giving rise to the________________

After few processing,____________ is released

A

Preproinsulin, proinsulin, insulin and c peptide

87
Q

Pancreas - Exocrine enzymes:

A

: Amylase and Lipase

88
Q

Pancreas- Endocrine

A

Glucagon (alpha cells)
■ Insulin (Beta-cells)
■ Somatostatin (delta cells)
■ Pancreatic polypeptide (PP or F cells)

89
Q

● Produced in the Alpha-cells of islets of Langerhans

A
  1. GLUCAGON
90
Q

Stimulus of glucagon

A

during stress, fasting states

91
Q

Actions : Enhances glycogenolysis (cause breakdown of
glycogen forming glucose) and
gluconeogenesis (formation of glucose from
another non-carbohydrate source)
○ ↑blood glucose level

A

Glucagon

92
Q

● Flight or flight hormone

A
  1. EPINEPHRINE
93
Q

● Produced in Adrenal medulla

A
  1. EPINEPHRINE
94
Q

● Stimulus: Released during stress

A
95
Q

Epinephrine stimulus:

A

● Stimulus: Released during stress

96
Q

Actions of Epinephrine

A

↑ blood glucose level
○ Inhibits insulin secretion
○ ↑ glycogenolysis
○ promoting lipolysis

97
Q

Adrenal cortex (zona fasciculata)

A
  1. CORTISOL
98
Q

Cortisol action:

A

○ On stimulation by ACTH ↑ blood glucose level
○ Decreasing entry of glucose into the cell
○ Increasing gluconeogenesis, liver
glycogenolysis, and lipolysis

99
Q

● Anterior pituitary gland

A
  1. GROWTH HORMONE
100
Q

Anterior pituitary gland

A

ACTH

101
Q

Stimulus: decreased cortisol levels

A

ACTH

102
Q

ACTH actions;

A

Stimulates cortisol release thus increases
plasma glucose
○ ↑ glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis, ↑ blood
glucose leve

103
Q

Thyroid gland (follicular cells)

A
  1. THYROXINE
104
Q

Thyroxine stimulus:

A

● Stimulus: Release of Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)

105
Q

Actions of thyroxine :

A

↑ glycogenolysis,
○ ↑ gluconeogenesis
○ ↑ intestinal absorption of glucose

106
Q

Delta-cells of islets of Langerhans of the pancreas & GI
cells

A
  1. SOMATOSTATIN
107
Q

● D cells of duodenum

A
  1. SOMATOSTATIN
108
Q
  1. SOMATOSTATIN
A

INHIBITORY HORMONE to Insulin, glucagon,
growth hormone, and other endocrine
hormones
○ “somatoSTOPin”

109
Q

Gut hormones secreted by the enteroendocrine cells
minutes

A
  1. INCRETINS
110
Q

● after eating

A
  1. INCRETINS
111
Q

Example of incretin

A

Glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP)
○ Glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1)

112
Q

○ GI surgery
○ Mild diabetes

A

● Postprandial hypoglycemia

113
Q

○ Insulin-producing pancreatic islet tumor

A

● Fasting hypoglycemia

114
Q

Excessive alcohol consumption,
drinking heavily without eating can
block your liver from releasing stored
glucose into the bloodstream causing
hypoglycemia

A

○ ROH consumption

115
Q

It is not just one disease but a group of metabolic
disorders

A

Diabetes Mellitus (DM)

116
Q

t refers to a group of common metabolic disorders that
share the phenotype of hyperglycemia

A

Diabetes Mellitus (DM)

117
Q

Complete or near Total Insulin
Deficiency

A

TYPE 1 DIABETES
MELLITUS

118
Q

Heterogenous group of disorders
characterized by variable degrees of
insulin resistance, impaired insulin
secretion, and increase glucose
production

A

TYPE 2 DIABETES
MELLITUS

119
Q

Insulin resistance related to
metabolic changes of late
pregnancy

A

GESTATIONAL DIABETES
MELLITUS

120
Q

Maturity-onset diabetes of the
young, pancreatic exocrine disease,
cystic fibrosis related DM, viral
infection

A

SPECIFIC TYPES

121
Q

is the result of interactions of genetic,
environmental and immunologic factors that ultimately
lead to the destruction of the pancreatic beta cells and
insulin deficiency.

A

Type 1 diabetes mellitus

122
Q

It can develop at any age, develops most commonly
before 20 years of age

A

type 1 diabetes mellitus

123
Q

Type 1 can be triggered

A

Infection
■ Environmental factors

124
Q

● Activation of macrophage with release of IL-1 and TNF a

A

IFN gamma

125
Q

● Activation of autoantigen-specific T cytotoxic (CD8) cells

A

IL-2

126
Q

Activation of B lymphocytes to produce islet cells
antibodies and antiGAD 65 antibodies

A

IL-4

126
Q

Activation of B lymphocytes to produce islet cells
antibodies and antiGAD 65 antibodies

A

IL-4

127
Q

is characterized by impaired insulin secretion,
insulin resistance, excessive hepatic glucose production,
and abnormal fat metabolism

A

Type 2 DM

128
Q

● Genetic predisposition
● Obesity
● Lifestyle factors

A

Insulin resistance:

129
Q

● Increase the output insulin→ normoglycemia

A

Compensatory beta hyperplasia

130
Q

Lead to impaired glucose tolerance
● Dahan dahan ng tumataas ang glucose level sa body

A

Beta cell failure at an early stage

131
Q

● Diabetes mellitus

A

Later stage: beta failure

132
Q

○ Diet/lifestyle
○ Exercise
○ Medication

A

● Glycemic control

133
Q

○ Dyslipidemia
○ HypertensionObesity
○ Coronary heart disease

A

● Treated associated conditions

134
Q

○ Retinopathy
○ Cardiovascular disease
○ Nephropathy
○ Neuropathy
○ Other complications

A

● Screen for/manage complications of diabetes

135
Q

Excessive urination

A

Polyuria

136
Q

Increased appetite

A

Polyphagia

137
Q

Excessive thirst

A

Polydipsia

138
Q

glucose will attract more water

A

Osmotic diuresis

139
Q

most common non reducing sugar

A

sucrose

140
Q

smallest carbohydrates

A

glyceraldehyde - three carbon compound

141
Q

This structure is formed when the functional (carbonyl) group (ketone or
aldehyde) reacts with an alcohol group on the same sugar to form a ring called _________

A

hemiketal or a hemiacetal ring,

142
Q

The central carbons of a carbohydrate are ___________

A

asymmetric

143
Q

This allows for various spatial
arrangements around each asymmetric carbon (also called stereogenic centers)
forming molecules called ___________

A

stereoisomers

144
Q

___________have the same order and
types of bonds but different spatial arrangements and different properties.

A

Stereoisomers

145
Q

aldohexose contains ______ asymmetric
carbons, there are

A

four

146
Q

A monosaccharide is assigned to
the D or the L series according to the configuration at the highest numbered
asymmetric carbon.

A

Dextrorotatory sugar and Levorotatory sugar

147
Q

This asymmetrically substituted carbon atom is called the ________

A

“configurational atom” or chiral center.

148
Q

are images that cannot be overlapped and are
nonsuperimposable.

A

enantiomers

149
Q

Most sugars in humans are in the ___-form.

A

Dextrorotatory sugar form - D form

CLIN CHEM LEC (13 decks)

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