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Year 2 Exam 2 > carbohydrate and lipid metabolism > Flashcards

carbohydrate and lipid metabolism Flashcards

1
Q

formation of enolate anions

A

formed from alpha beta systems, alpha carbon is slightly acidic so a strong base reacts with it to form enolates

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2
Q

formation of acetals and ketals

A

alcohol attacks ethers twice to form carbons with ether linkages under acidic conditions (AASPEN + extra activation)

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3
Q

what is an acetal

A

carbon with 2 ethers and one hydrogen

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4
Q

what is a ketal

A

carbon with 2 ethers and 2 hydrogens

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5
Q

formation of imines

A

addition of primary amines to carbonyl group of aldehyde/ketone followed by acid catalysed elimination of water

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6
Q

what is an aldol reaction

A

produces an enolate from an aldehyde or ketone which then attacks another carbonyl compound to form a beta-hydroxyl carbonyl compound

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7
Q

what is an elimination reaction

A

nucleophile attacks the hydrogen instead of the carbon to form an alkene

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8
Q

what are the two types of monosaccharides

A

aldoses and ketoses

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9
Q

what are the three common sugars

A

d-glucopyranose (all OH equatorial) , d-galactose (OH-4 axial, all others equatorial) , d-mannopyranose (OH-2 is axial, others equatorial)

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10
Q

define axial

A

above/below

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11
Q

define equatorial

A

away from the ring

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12
Q

what is a lipid

A

defined by a physical property rather than a common structural feature, natural and not very water soluble

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13
Q

hydrolysable lipid characteristics

A

tri-acyl glycerides
used for energy storage
contain alcohols and fatty acids

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14
Q

non-hydrolysable lipid characteristics

A

steroid hormones - bile acids etc

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15
Q

define metabolism

A

sum of all biochemical reactions

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16
Q

define catabolism

A

large biochemical molecules being broken into smaller ones

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17
Q

define anabolism

A

small biochemical molecules joined to larger ones

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18
Q

what is ATP used for

A

energy carrier within the cell, froduced by food catabolism

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19
Q

what is NAD (nicotinamide adenosine dinucleotides) used for

A

redox factor - enzyme catalysed reduction mechanism, H added across carbonyl to form alcohol

20
Q

NAD structure

A

nicotinamide, ribose, adenine and ADP

21
Q

FAD (flavin adenosine dinucleotide) structure

A

riboflavin, adenosine diphosphate

22
Q

what is FAD used for

A

redox factor - reduction is enzyme catalysed, H added across carbonyl to form alcohol

23
Q

AcetylCoA structure

A

2-aminoethanethiol, pantothenic acid and phosphorylated ADP

24
Q

role of AcetylCoA

A

acyl carrier, HS group can form thioesters

25
Q

steps in glucose metabolism

A
  1. digestion
  2. glycolysis - 2 pyruvate and 4 ATP
  3. pyruvate - acetylcoa
  4. citric acid cycle
  5. electron transport chain
26
Q

products of the citric acid cycle

A
  • 1 FADH
  • 3 NADH
  • 1 GTP
  • 2 CO 2
27
Q

what is the electron transport chain

A

a series of biochemical reactions that use electrons and hydrogen from NADH/FADH2 (from citric acid cycle) which are passed through carriers to pump H+ into the intermembrane space and then back into the matrix through ATP synthase

28
Q

products of the electron transport chain

A

for each AcetylCoA: 10 ATP are formed

29
Q

glycerol head of lipids metabolism

A

oxidised - catalysed by ATP and converted to pyruvate for citric acid cycle

30
Q

fatty acid chains metabolism

A
  • combined with CoA and dehydrogenated to FADH2
  • hydrated to form 2nd alcohol,
  • dehydrogenated to ketone to form NADH
  • release of another CoA
  • loop continues until all C2 groups broken down to produce acetylcoa which goes through citric acid cycle
31
Q

anabolic reactions of acetylcoa

A
  • lipogenesis
  • cholesterol biosynthesis
  • ketogenesis
32
Q

lipogenesis

A
  • fatty acid synthesis from acetylcoa
  • acetyl acp + malonyl acp condensated
  • Acetoacetyl ACP is hydrogenated using NADPH
  • beta hydroxybutyryl ACP dehydrated
  • crotonyl acp hydrogenated with nadph
  • forms butyryl acp
33
Q

ketogenesis

A
  • 2 acetylcoa join - acetylacetylcoa
  • forms 3-hydroxy-emethylglutayl (also used for cholesterol)
  • this forms ketone bodies
34
Q

metabolism of carbon portion of amino acids

A
  • triaglycerols via fatty acid synth
  • glucose via gluconeogenesis
  • ATP via citric acid
  • ketogenesis
35
Q

metabolism of nitrogen portion of amino acids

A
  • elimination
  • biosynth of non-essential amino acids or other nitrogen compounds
36
Q

deamination (Schiff base)

A

oxidation and hydrogenation of an amine to form imine

37
Q

trans-amination

A

interchanging of amino group of an alpha amino acid with a keto group from an alpha-keto acid

38
Q

excess amino acids

A

transferred to glutamate and converted to urea by glutamate dehydrogenase and the urea cycle

39
Q

what is oxidative stress

A

generation of high levels of toxic oxidising molecules which cause tissue damage

40
Q

how are reactive oxygen species usually neutralised

A

glutathione (GSH)

41
Q

hyperglycaemia induced superoxide production

A

increased glucose through citric acid cycle, increasing NADH, increasing ETC.

42
Q

problems with superoxide overproduction

A

increasing superoxide inhibits GADPH which diverts glycolysis metabolites to the 4 pathways of hyperglycaemic damage (polyol, hexosamine, PKA, AGE)

43
Q

polyol hyperglycaemic damage pathway

A

increased glucose = increased aldose reductase = increased sorbitol = increased NADPH = reduced GSH = reduced protection

44
Q

PKC hyperglycaemic damage pathway

A

excess DHAP converted to DAG that activates PKC which activates other proteins that use NADPH to produce superoxides

45
Q

AGE (advanced glycation end-products) hyperglycaemic damage pathway

A

DHAP and GAP levels increase and degrade to methylglyoxal which reacts with lysine to form imines - can inactivate proteins

46
Q

what is methylglyoxal

A

reactive electrophile which can alkylate amino groups on proteins and nucleic acids to disrupt their function

47
Q

w is methylglyoxal detoxified

A

glyoxalase pathway - it is reduced to lactic acid by glutathione

Year 2 Exam 2 (16 decks)

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