c1: Key science skills and research methods in psychology

Question 1

define primary data

Answer 1

information collected directly from the source by the researcher (or through others) for their own specific purpose FOR THE FIRST TIME

Question 2

define secondary data

Answer 2

information that was not collected directly by the current researcher but was collected
at an earlier time by someone else. It has already been collected by some other individual, group or organisation and will not be used for the first time, which is why it is referred to as ‘secondary’

Question 3

define objective data

Answer 3

information that is observable, measurable, verifiable and free from the personal bias of the researcher

objective data preferred in science

Question 4

define subjective data

Answer 4

information that is based on personal opinion, interpretation, point of view or judgment

determined by the research participants and cannot always be verified by the researcher

It is often biased, can vary from person to person, day to day from the same person, and is not always entirely accurate.

Question 5

what are ethical concepts

Answer 5

beneficence, integrity, justice, non-maleficence, respect

Question 6

what are the ethical guidelines

Answer 6

confidentiality, debriefing, informed consent, use of deception, voluntary participation, withdrawal rights

Question 7

define beneficence

Answer 7

commitment to maximising benefits and minimising the risks and harms involved in taking a particular position or course of action

• the researcher must consider and maximise all possible good outcomes while minimising the risks of harm to participants and to the community in general
• potential benefits must justify any risk or harm or discomfort to participants

Question 8

define integrity

Answer 8

the commitment to searching for knowledge and understanding, the honest reporting of all sources of information and results, whether favourable or unfavourable, in ways that permit scrutiny and contribute to public knowledge and understanding.

Question 9

research that is conducted w integrity must be carried out w a commitment to the following recognised ethical principles and guidelines:

Answer 9

accurate and responsible reporting of findings, whether the results are favourable or unfavourable.

Question 10

define justice

Answer 10

• The moral obligation to ensure that there is fair consideration of competing claims
• no unfair burden on a particular group from an action; and that there is fair distribution and access to the benefits of an action

Question 11

what must a researcher do to ensure justice when conducting an experiment

Answer 11

• researcher must use fair procedures and ensure fair distribution of costs and benefits
• process of recruiting and selecting participants should be fair so the researcher must avoid imposing on particular groups an unfair burden of participation in their research
• benefits of the research should be distributed fairly between the participants and the wider community

Question 12

define non-maleficience

Answer 12

• Involves avoiding the causations of harm
• However, as positions or courses of actions in scientific research may involve some degree of harm, the concept of non-maleficence implies that the harm resulting from any position or course of action should not be disproportionate to the benefits from any position or course of action
• the researcher must strive to ensure that there are benefits from their research and take care to not only avoid harm to all participants but to protect them from harm
• If there is any potential for harm, then it must be justifiable and outweighed by the benefits.

Question 13

define respect

Answer 13

• Involves consideration of the extent to which living things have an intrinsic value and/or instrumental value; giving due regard to the welfare, liberty and autonomy, beliefs, perceptions, customs and cultural heritage of both the individual and the collective
• consideration of the capacity of living things to make their own decisions; and when living things have diminished capacity to make their own decisions ensuring that they are empowered where possible and protected as necessary.
• example:
  
  • the researcher must recognise that all individuals, both human and non-human, have value and importance.
  • In relation to people, the researcher must take account of the rights, beliefs, perceptions and cultural backgrounds of all participants and the groups to which they belong
    
    • all participants have the rights to
      
      • privacy
      • confidentiality
      • make informed decisions about matters that affect them
    • People must be protected and empowered if they are vulnerable or their capacity to make informed decisions is impaired (example: children)

Question 14

define confidentiality

Answer 14

• The privacy, protection and security of a participant’s personal information in terms of personal details and the anonymity in individual results, including the removal of identifying elements.

Question 15

what must a researcher do to ensure confidentiality

Answer 15

the obligation of the researcher not to use or disclose private information for any other purpose

• Participants have a right to privacy, so the researcher must collect only the information that is needed
• any information that may identify an individual or their involvement in research (e.g. personal data) cannot be revealed unless consented
• The right to privacy and procedures for establishing and maintaining confidentiality must be explained to participants before the study commences
  • also applies to the collection, recording, accessing, storage, dissemination and disposal of personal information
• If personal information about an individual is no longer needed, then the information should be destroyed or de-identified.

Question 16

define debriefing

Answer 16

• Ensures that at the end of the experiment, the participant leaves understanding the experimental aim, results and conclusions
• Any questions participants have are addressed, and support is also provided to ensure there is no lasting harm from their involvement in the study
• Debriefing is essential for all studies that involve deception
• Checking the wellbeing of the participant and addressing any harm that may have resulted from their participation in the study is another important requirement of debriefing

Question 17

an example of debriefing

Answer 17

providing information about counselling services and how to access them to help treat any distress resulting from the study

- In extreme cases, participant wellbeing may be monitored after the research
    - example: participants may receive questionnaires, be asked to complete diaries and/or have follow-up meetings with the research team.

Question 18

define informed consent

Answer 18

• Ensure that participants understand the nature and purpose of the experiment, including potential risks (both physical and psychological), before agreeing to participate in the study

Question 19

should consent be written

Answer 19

YES: Voluntary written consent should be obtained by the experimenter and if participants are unable to give this consent, then a parent or legal guardian should provide this.

Question 20

what must consent encompass in order for it to be valid

Answer 20

• Consent is a voluntary choice for participants and must be based on sufficient information and adequate understanding of both the proposed research and the consequences of participation in it
• information should be given about the purpose, methods, demands, risks and potential benefits of the research
• This information must be presented in ways suitable for each participant
  
  • example: it should be in plain language (with the least possible technical jargon) and the researcher should take account of personal characteristics such as age, educational background, cultural background
    and any other possible barriers (e.g. medical conditions) to understanding the information
• There should be an opportunity for prospective participants to ask questions about the research
• essential that participants have the competence to give informed consent

Question 21

how do researchers obtain informed consent

Answer 21

• Often, researchers obtain informed consent using a document like the sample consent form
  
  • Two copies are made: one for researcher, one for participant

Question 22

characteristics of deception

Answer 22

• only permissible when participants knowing the true purpose of the experiment may affect their behaviour whilst participating in the study, and the subsequent validity of the experiment
• The use of deception is discouraged in psychological research and used only when necessary
• By its nature, deception violates the ethical requirement of informed consent
• Its use also means that the relationship between researcher and participant is not open and honest
• However, deception is considered acceptable if the potential benefits of the research justify its use and there is no feasible alternative to its use.

Question 23

why is voluntary participation important

Answer 23

• Ensures that no coercion or pressure is put on the participant to partake in an experiment, and they freely choose to be involved
• Therefore, the researcher must ensure all participants voluntarily consent to be involved in an investigation
• The researcher must also ensure that prospective participants do not experience negative consequences if they choose not to be involved in a study.

Question 24

what are withdrawal rights

Answer 24

• a participant being able to discontinue their involvement in an experiment at any time during or after the conclusion of an experiment, without penalty
• may include the removal of the participant’s results from the study after the study is completed
• Participants also have the right to withdraw without giving a reason for doing so

Question 25

should withdrawal rights be explained to participants before a study commences

Answer 25

YES, and the researcher must ensure that participants suffer no negative consequences as a result of withdrawing from the study

Question 26

define categorical variables

Answer 26

qualitative variables that describe a quality or characteristic typically addressing ‘what type?’ or ‘which category?’

generally represented by non-numeric values

classified as ordinal or nominal

Question 27

define ordinal variables

Answer 27

can take values that can be logically ordered or ranked, for example, birth order (1st, 2nd 3rd), level of stress (low, medium, high) and attitudes (strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree)

Question 28

define nominal variables

Answer 28

can take values that cannot be organised in a logical sequence, for example, gender colour, taste (sweet, sour, bitter, salt, savoury) and type of sleep (REM, NREM)
Bar charts and pie graphs are used to graph categorical data.

Question 29

define numerical variables

Answer 29

quantitative variables that describe a measurable quantity as a number, typically addressing ‘how many?’ or ‘how much?’

They are further classified as continuous or discrete

Question 30

define continuous variables

Answer 30

can take any value between a certain set of real numbers

for example, distance (2.85 kilometres), length of time (12.5 seconds) or temperature (25.4 °C)

Question 31

define discrete variables

Answer 31

can take a value based on a count from a set of distinct whole values and cannot t​ake the value of a fraction between one value and the next closest value,

for example, number of electrons in an atom

Question 32

define extraneous variables

Answer 32

Any variable that is not intentionally studied in an experiment is an extraneous variable and must be controlled (kept constant), or at least monitored, in order that it does not threaten the internal validity of experimental results by becoming a confounding variable.​​

Question 33

define confounding variables

Answer 33

Confounding variables are types of extraneous variables that correlate either directly or inversely with both the independent and dependent variables and can interfere with the validity of the experiment by providing alternative explanations for experimental results.

Question 34

define operationalised variables

Answer 34

variables that have been defined and explained in terms of how they will be measured in an experiment

for example, if we wanted to investigate the effect of media violence (IV) on aggression (DV), the terms ‘media violence’ and ‘aggression’ would need to be defined as they would be investigated in the experiment. ‘Media violence’ could be operationally defined as ‘exposure to a 20-minute YouTube clip showing scenes of physical assault’ while ‘aggression’ could be operationally defined as ‘the number of times a second “participant” is hit with a foam sword’.​

Question 35

what do experimental methods investigate

Answer 35

what causes an outcome

Question 36

what do correlational methods measure

Answer 36

measure relationship between variables

Question 37

what do descriptive methods do

Answer 37

describe what is occuring