c1: Key science skills and research methods in psychology Flashcards
define primary data
information collected directly from the source by the researcher (or through others) for their own specific purpose FOR THE FIRST TIME
define secondary data
information that was not collected directly by the current researcher but was collected
at an earlier time by someone else. It has already been collected by some other individual, group or organisation and will not be used for the first time, which is why it is referred to as ‘secondary’
define objective data
information that is observable, measurable, verifiable and free from the personal bias of the researcher
objective data preferred in science
define subjective data
information that is based on personal opinion, interpretation, point of view or judgment
determined by the research participants and cannot always be verified by the researcher
It is often biased, can vary from person to person, day to day from the same person, and is not always entirely accurate.
what are ethical concepts
beneficence, integrity, justice, non-maleficence, respect
what are the ethical guidelines
confidentiality, debriefing, informed consent, use of deception, voluntary participation, withdrawal rights
define beneficence
commitment to maximising benefits and minimising the risks and harms involved in taking a particular position or course of action
- the researcher must consider and maximise all possible good outcomes while minimising the risks of harm to participants and to the community in general
- potential benefits must justify any risk or harm or discomfort to participants
define integrity
the commitment to searching for knowledge and understanding, the honest reporting of all sources of information and results, whether favourable or unfavourable, in ways that permit scrutiny and contribute to public knowledge and understanding.
research that is conducted w integrity must be carried out w a commitment to the following recognised ethical principles and guidelines:
accurate and responsible reporting of findings, whether the results are favourable or unfavourable.
define justice
- The moral obligation to ensure that there is fair consideration of competing claims
- no unfair burden on a particular group from an action; and that there is fair distribution and access to the benefits of an action
what must a researcher do to ensure justice when conducting an experiment
- researcher must use fair procedures and ensure fair distribution of costs and benefits
- process of recruiting and selecting participants should be fair so the researcher must avoid imposing on particular groups an unfair burden of participation in their research
- benefits of the research should be distributed fairly between the participants and the wider community
define non-maleficience
- Involves avoiding the causations of harm
- However, as positions or courses of actions in scientific research may involve some degree of harm, the concept of non-maleficence implies that the harm resulting from any position or course of action should not be disproportionate to the benefits from any position or course of action
- the researcher must strive to ensure that there are benefits from their research and take care to not only avoid harm to all participants but to protect them from harm
- If there is any potential for harm, then it must be justifiable and outweighed by the benefits.
define respect
- Involves consideration of the extent to which living things have an intrinsic value and/or instrumental value; giving due regard to the welfare, liberty and autonomy, beliefs, perceptions, customs and cultural heritage of both the individual and the collective
- consideration of the capacity of living things to make their own decisions; and when living things have diminished capacity to make their own decisions ensuring that they are empowered where possible and protected as necessary.
- example:
- the researcher must recognise that all individuals, both human and non-human, have value and importance.
- In relation to people, the researcher must take account of the rights, beliefs, perceptions and cultural backgrounds of all participants and the groups to which they belong
- all participants have the rights to
- privacy
- confidentiality
- make informed decisions about matters that affect them
- People must be protected and empowered if they are vulnerable or their capacity to make informed decisions is impaired (example: children)
- all participants have the rights to
define confidentiality
- The privacy, protection and security of a participant’s personal information in terms of personal details and the anonymity in individual results, including the removal of identifying elements.
what must a researcher do to ensure confidentiality
the obligation of the researcher not to use or disclose private information for any other purpose
- Participants have a right to privacy, so the researcher must collect only the information that is needed
- any information that may identify an individual or their involvement in research (e.g. personal data) cannot be revealed unless consented
- The right to privacy and procedures for establishing and maintaining confidentiality must be explained to participants before the study commences
- also applies to the collection, recording, accessing, storage, dissemination and disposal of personal information
- If personal information about an individual is no longer needed, then the information should be destroyed or de-identified.
define debriefing
- Ensures that at the end of the experiment, the participant leaves understanding the experimental aim, results and conclusions
- Any questions participants have are addressed, and support is also provided to ensure there is no lasting harm from their involvement in the study
- Debriefing is essential for all studies that involve deception
- Checking the wellbeing of the participant and addressing any harm that may have resulted from their participation in the study is another important requirement of debriefing
an example of debriefing
providing information about counselling services and how to access them to help treat any distress resulting from the study
- In extreme cases, participant wellbeing may be monitored after the research - example: participants may receive questionnaires, be asked to complete diaries and/or have follow-up meetings with the research team.
define informed consent
- Ensure that participants understand the nature and purpose of the experiment, including potential risks (both physical and psychological), before agreeing to participate in the study
should consent be written
YES: Voluntary written consent should be obtained by the experimenter and if participants are unable to give this consent, then a parent or legal guardian should provide this.
what must consent encompass in order for it to be valid
- Consent is a voluntary choice for participants and must be based on sufficient information and adequate understanding of both the proposed research and the consequences of participation in it
- information should be given about the purpose, methods, demands, risks and potential benefits of the research
- This information must be presented in ways suitable for each participant
- example: it should be in plain language (with the least possible technical jargon) and the researcher should take account of personal characteristics such as age, educational background, cultural background
and any other possible barriers (e.g. medical conditions) to understanding the information
- example: it should be in plain language (with the least possible technical jargon) and the researcher should take account of personal characteristics such as age, educational background, cultural background
- There should be an opportunity for prospective participants to ask questions about the research
- essential that participants have the competence to give informed consent
how do researchers obtain informed consent
- Often, researchers obtain informed consent using a document like the sample consent form
- Two copies are made: one for researcher, one for participant
characteristics of deception
- only permissible when participants knowing the true purpose of the experiment may affect their behaviour whilst participating in the study, and the subsequent validity of the experiment
- The use of deception is discouraged in psychological research and used only when necessary
- By its nature, deception violates the ethical requirement of informed consent
- Its use also means that the relationship between researcher and participant is not open and honest
- However, deception is considered acceptable if the potential benefits of the research justify its use and there is no feasible alternative to its use.
why is voluntary participation important
- Ensures that no coercion or pressure is put on the participant to partake in an experiment, and they freely choose to be involved
- Therefore, the researcher must ensure all participants voluntarily consent to be involved in an investigation
- The researcher must also ensure that prospective participants do not experience negative consequences if they choose not to be involved in a study.
what are withdrawal rights
- a participant being able to discontinue their involvement in an experiment at any time during or after the conclusion of an experiment, without penalty
- may include the removal of the participant’s results from the study after the study is completed
- Participants also have the right to withdraw without giving a reason for doing so
should withdrawal rights be explained to participants before a study commences
YES, and the researcher must ensure that participants suffer no negative consequences as a result of withdrawing from the study
define categorical variables
qualitative variables that describe a quality or characteristic typically addressing ‘what type?’ or ‘which category?’
generally represented by non-numeric values
classified as ordinal or nominal
define ordinal variables
can take values that can be logically ordered or ranked, for example, birth order (1st, 2nd 3rd), level of stress (low, medium, high) and attitudes (strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree)
define nominal variables
can take values that cannot be organised in a logical sequence, for example, gender colour, taste (sweet, sour, bitter, salt, savoury) and type of sleep (REM, NREM)
Bar charts and pie graphs are used to graph categorical data.
define numerical variables
quantitative variables that describe a measurable quantity as a number, typically addressing ‘how many?’ or ‘how much?’
They are further classified as continuous or discrete
define continuous variables
can take any value between a certain set of real numbers
for example, distance (2.85 kilometres), length of time (12.5 seconds) or temperature (25.4 °C)
define discrete variables
can take a value based on a count from a set of distinct whole values and cannot take the value of a fraction between one value and the next closest value,
for example, number of electrons in an atom
define extraneous variables
Any variable that is not intentionally studied in an experiment is an extraneous variable and must be controlled (kept constant), or at least monitored, in order that it does not threaten the internal validity of experimental results by becoming a confounding variable.
define confounding variables
Confounding variables are types of extraneous variables that correlate either directly or inversely with both the independent and dependent variables and can interfere with the validity of the experiment by providing alternative explanations for experimental results.
define operationalised variables
variables that have been defined and explained in terms of how they will be measured in an experiment
for example, if we wanted to investigate the effect of media violence (IV) on aggression (DV), the terms ‘media violence’ and ‘aggression’ would need to be defined as they would be investigated in the experiment. ‘Media violence’ could be operationally defined as ‘exposure to a 20-minute YouTube clip showing scenes of physical assault’ while ‘aggression’ could be operationally defined as ‘the number of times a second “participant” is hit with a foam sword’.
what do experimental methods investigate
what causes an outcome
what do correlational methods measure
measure relationship between variables
what do descriptive methods do
describe what is occuring