2.1 Social cognition (c6) Flashcards
define social cognition
social cognitioninvolves how we perceive, think about and use information to understand and make judgments about ourselves and others in different social situations.
can include categorising ourselves, individuals, groups and social behaviour to assist our understanding.
is social cognition good and why
yes
we get better at understanding our own social behaviour and that of others as our cognitive abilities develop and we learn through experience.
is social cognition an error-free process? give an example
no because
For example, we can decide to trust someone who shouldn’t have been trusted, and someone who first impressed as likeable can turn out to be unlikeable.
define person perception
Person perception refers to the mental processes we use to form impressions and draw conclusions about the personal characteristics of other people.
what are first impressions based on
visible cues- primarily based on the way people look and the way they act.
can first impressions have a lasting impact on the way we perceive and behave towards a certain person?
yes
what are physical cues
the way people look and act
is attractiveness an important characteristic of first impressions?
yes-
People who are judged as physically attractive are generally perceived as more interesting, warm, mentally healthy, intelligent, independent, outgoing and socially skilled than unattractive people.
good-looking people are more likely to be perceived as less lonely, less socially anxious and more popular.
what is the halo effect
a cognitive bias in which the impression we form about one quality of a person influences our beliefs and expectations about the person in other qualities.
what is the reverse halo effect
Thereverse halo effectinvolves an incorrect assumption that a positive characteristic indicates the presence of negative characteristics.
what is the horn effect
an incorrect assumption that a negative characteristic indicates the presence of one or more other negative characteristics.
give an example of the reverse halo effect
For example, it may be assumed that a good-looking person is shallow, self-centred, ‘stuck up’ and manipulative.
give an example of the horn effect
it may be assumed that a student who is disruptive in class is a low achiever.
what is a persons body language
an expression of behaviour that enables us to make quick and often accurate judgments about them.
are there shared understandings of what many of these expressive behaviours mean
yes
give an example of expressive behaviour w shared understanding
generally, in Australia andmany other Western cultures, tapping our fingers when waiting shows impatience, winking an eye at someone demonstrates familiarity, raising an eyebrow indicates disbelief or concern and scratching our head suggests we are puzzled.
is eye contact influential
yes Eye contact is one of the most influential forms of non-verbal communication.
can we form impressions of people on the basis of their behaviour
yes- may be actions that we personally observe or actions we learn about from others
are we more likely to form an accurate impression of someone if we consider what people do rather than their appearance or words alone
yes
define salience
saliencerefers to any personal characteristic that is distinctive, prominent, conspicuous or noticeable in its context and therefore attracts attention.
examples of salient characteristics
This may be an individual’s gender, race, physical appearance in general, a specific feature such as clothing, height or a facial tattoo, their behaviour, a gesture, something they are holding, and so on.
can A characteristic that is salient lead to assumptions that become part of our first impression of a person?
yes
what is salience usually produced by
novelty, uniqueness or unexpectedness
does low salience attract attention
no- The higher the salience of a characteristic in its surroundings, the more likely it is to be detectable and attract attention.
define social categorisation
As person perceivers, we routinely classify each other into different groups on the basis of common characteristics.
is social categorisation conscious
Sometimes we do this consciously, but social categorisation more often occurs automatically without our conscious awareness.
is social categorisation useful and possibly adaptive?
yes
why is social categorisation useful and possibly adaptive?
it allows us to form impressions quickly and use past experience and what we have learnt through the media and our culture to guide new social interactions.
what did American psychologist Gordon Allport propose
that people tend to categorise themselves and others into ‘ingroups’ and ‘outgroups’ which can in turn influence their attitudes towards the members of those groups.
what is an ingroup
any group that you belong to or identify with as aningroup.
give an example of an ingroup
friendship groups, peer group, family, school, religion, sex, race, culture, the country in which you live
what is an outgroup
Anoutgroupis any group you do not belong to or identify with.
define attribution
the process by which we explain the cause of our own or another person’s behaviour. The term is also used to refer to the explanation we come up with.
what are the 3 common types of bias or errors that often affect our attributions
the fundamental attribution error
actor-observer bias
self-serving bias
what is attribution-fundamental attribution error
The tendency to overestimate the influence of personal factors and underestimate the impact of situational factors on other people’s behaviour.
When we do this, we attribute a person’s behaviour to internal rather than external factors.
why do we make attribution-fundamental attribution errors
saliency bias or just-world belief
what is saliency bias
the person’s behaviour tends to be more conspicuous and therefore noticeable (‘salient’) than the situation in which it is occurring.
what is just-world belief
When we focus on the person, we tend to do so with a perspective that the world is a just and fair place.
refers to the belief that the world is ajustplace in which people generally get what they deserve and deserve what they get.
other names for just-world belief
just-world hypothesisandjust-world fallacy
how does just-world belief impact us
This belief allows us to better understand and feel safer in a world where we do not always have control over our circumstances and can therefore be exposed to cruel twists of fate.
what is actor-observer bias
Refers to our tendency to attribute our own behaviour to external or situational causes, yet attribute others’ behaviour to internal factors.
example of actor-observer bias
For example, if you fail an exam you may blame your failure on an overly difficult paper, but you might say your friend failed because she did not study enough.
what is self serving bias
When judging ourselves we tend to take the credit for our successes and attribute failures to situational factors.
what is the reason for self serving bias
One explanation of this bias is that we are motivated by a desire to protect our self-esteem so we distance ourselves from failure
what are attitudes
Attitudes are ideas about:
Ourselves
Others
Objects
Experiences
how are attitudes learned
Our attitudes are learned through experiences and can cause a person to respond in a positive or negative way.
criteria of an attitude
Involve an evaluation of something (might be able to place it along a continuum)
Relatively settled and stable (attitudes can change, but are relatively permanent)
Mostly learnt experience
what are the three components of attitudes
ABC
Affective, behavioural, cognitive
what is the affective component of attitudes
Emotional reaction or feelings
Based on judgement which results in a positive, negative or neutral response.
examples of affective components
E.g. “I love pineapple on pizza’’ or “I hate salami”
what is the behavioural component of attitudes
Way in which an attitude is expressed through our actions.
examples of the behavioural component of attitudes
E.g. avoiding or protesting things we don’t like.
cognitive components of attitudes?
the beliefs we have- linked to what we know and develop as a results of our experiences. Some are based on fact and others are false.
examples of cognitive components of attitudes
I don’t believe pineapple belongs on pizza because it is sweet and pizza is savory.
does the tri-component model propose that all three components must be present before it can be said that an attitude exists
yes
are affective, cognitive and behavioural components consistent?
yes, in many cases
an example of consistency between the components?
you might feel good about going to school (affective component) and work hard in and out of class (behavioural component) because you believe that good grades are required to get into the tertiary course of most interest to you (cognitive component).
are there only affective and cognitive components?
possibly because a person’s behaviour does not always reflect the attitude they hold; that is, the behavioural component is often inconsistent, or ‘out of sync’, withthe affective and cognitive components of theattitude.
an example of inconsistency between the components?
For example, a person may know that dental hygiene is important and agrees that 6-monthly dental visits are vital (cognitive component), but refuses to go to the dentist (behavioural component) because the sound of a dental drill makes them feel anxious (affective component).
are there cases where two components are inconsistent with the 3rd component- and why does this happen
yes- this often results from one or more of the components being stronger, or more intense, than the other(s).
an example of inconsistency between the components where 2 components are inconsistent w the 3rd component and one or more components are stronger than the other(s)
a person may be in love with their partner (affective component), have doubts about the future of the relationship (cognitive component), but continue in the relationship (behavioural component).
Consider also the example of a person who hates pumpkin soup (affective component) but eats it when staying at a friend’s place (behavioural component) because the person believes it is the polite thing to do (cognitive component).
Why are attitudes and behaviour frequently linked?
because many people believe that attitudes play a significant role in influencing or even directing behaviour.
true or false: a person’s attitudes + behaviour are always consistent
false- sometimes a person’s attitudes and observable behaviour will be unrelated or only slightly related. Conversely, our actual behaviours may not always reflect our true attitudes.
some factors that determine whether attitudes and behaviour will match:
how strongly we hold the attitude
how easily the attitude comes to mind
the situation we are in
our personal belief that we can actually perform the behaviour associated with an attitude.
define stereotype
a generalisation about the personal characteristics of the members of a social group.
are stereotypes fixed and resistant to change?
yes
are stereotypes still fixed even when we encounter someone with characteristics that do not match our stereotype?
yes
are stereotypes inaccurate
sometimes
can stereotypes lead to stigmatisation
yes
define stigma
a negative label associated with disapproval or rejection by others who are not labelled in that way
can stereotypes lead to prejudice
yes
can prejudice lead to discrimination
yes
what is cognitive dissonance
an unpleasant psychological state that occurs when people become aware that there is inconsistency among their various beliefs, attitudes or other “cognitions” or that their behaviour conflicts w their cognitions
is dissonance likely to be experienced by someone when their behaviour is different from the way they believe they should behave
yes
examples of cognitive dissonance
a student who believes cheating is wrong but does so on a test is likely to experience cognitive dissonance- people who smoke even though they know that smoking is harmful to their health
what can the unpleasant experience of cognitive dissonance do
motivate people to avoid it and actively work to reduce/abolish it
what do people do to reduce or avoid dissonance
choose the easiest course
1st way of reducing/avoiding dissonance
change dissonant opinion
an example of the first way of reducing/avoiding dissonance
for ex: if you hold the belief that sport is necessary to maintain good health yet do not play any sport, you might think “playing strenuous sport is not such a good idea and I probably get enough exercise in daily activities anyway”
2nd way of reducing/avoiding dissonance?
changing the behaviour to suit the dissonant cognition
an ex. of the 2nd way
if experiencing dissonance bc of playing no sports- reduce it by taking up running
what is the 3rd way of reducing/avoiding dissonance?
add new cognitions or supportive elements to outweigh the dissonant cognition or to rationalise/justify the behaviour
example of 3rd way
“I don’t play sport bc i have a bad knee”
can ppl cope w dissonance in ways that aren’t healthy?
yes
example of unhealthy dissonance coping mechanisms
they may block out contradictory thoughts or numb themselves w drugs- any addiction rlly, like social media addiction
what is cognitive bias
a systematic error of judgement and faulty decision-making- aka a distorted or mistaken way of thinking that usually leads to inaccurate or unreasonable conclusions
is cognitive bias a “normal” psychological process that can occur in all people to a greater/lesser extent
yes
can cognitive bias become a habitual way of distorted thinking which negatively impacts on a person’s personal and professional life?
yes
what else does cognitive bias influence other than how we think
how we feel + behave- decision-mkaing and choices in a wide range of areas like
- personal / social behaviour
- med practice
- mental health care
- education
- finance
cognitive bias other than actor-observer, halo effect and self-serving
anchoring, attentional, confirmation, false-consensus bias, hindsight, misinformation effect, optimism bias, dunning-kruger effect
what is anchoring bias?
the tendency to rely heavily on the very first piece of info received (aka anchor) when making a decision and to not modify this anchor sufficiently in light of later info
what can anchoring bias lead to
bad judgment + decision making when the first available info is incorrect or when over-reliance on realy info blocks objective consideration of more important later info
example of anchoring bias
E.g. suppose you are shopping online for a hoodie and first see one you really like that is priced at $450 and way above your budget. You will be prone to thinking that any amount below that is good value, even if it isn’t, and therefore possibly not search for a better deal. In this case, your decision is influenced by an ‘anchor’ (the first price seen) which is serving as a reference point for your decision-making.
what is attentional bias
the tendency to prioritise attention to certain information (or other stimuli) over other information. This means that when making a decision, we may not identify and weigh up all the pros and cons, or consider all options and possible outcomes.
example of attentional bias
when buying a hoodie within your budget you may focus on its colour, size and overall look and feel, disregarding how warm or weather-proof it may be, whether it is made of colourfast material, or if it can be washed at home or needs expensive dry-cleaning to avoid wrecking it after a few washes.
what is confirmation bias
the tendency to seek, recall or interpret information in a way that confirms existing beliefs or expectations, while dismissing or failing to seek contradictory evidence.
what can confirmation bias lead to
This can lead to bad choices or decision-making due to the failure to access or consider all possible information that may yield a better outcome in a rational, open-minded manner.
is confirmation bias is a means of avoiding or dealing with cognitive dissonance when evidence or opposing views do not support beliefs that are of importance to us?
yes
what can confirmation bias help a person do
help an individual justify their beliefs and downplay or not see contradictory information, thereby avoiding dissonance.
an example of confirmation bias
E.g. someone who has a strong pre-existing belief that climate change is a myth rather than a fact will seek and favour information that supports their belief and ignore opposing information. They will prefer media and information sources that share their views and avoid, ignore, downplay or criticise arguments or facts that go against their views, regardless of the quality or strength of supporting evidence to the contrary. They may see the flaws in arguments that are contradictory to their own but are unable to see weaknesses in their own side.
what is false-consensus bias
the tendency to overestimate the extent to which other people are like them in terms of sharing beliefs, personal characteristics or behaviours.Essentially, this means that peopleoften assumethat others aremuch more like them than they actually are — an assumption that others like what we like and do what we prefer to do.
an example of false-consensus bias
E.g. someone may assume that all their friends agree with the racist and sexist comments they make despite the fact that they actually find them offensive but haven’t spoken up.
can cause someone with extreme political beliefs to incorrectly assume that the majority of the population agrees with them and shares those beliefs, even though most people don’t.
what is false-consensus bias also called
thefalse-consensus effect
what is hindsight bias
the tendency, only after an event has occurred, to overestimate the extent to which the outcome could have been foreseen. This occurs regardless of the randomness or unpredictability of the event. Events are incorrectly understood to be more predictable than they actually are.
an example of hindsight bias
E.g. people with hindsight biasbelieve they should have anticipated certain outcomes, which might only be possible, if at all, with the benefit of knowledge and perspective following the event’s completion. They may overlook the possibility that at the time of the event, important information was not actually available.
when does hindsight bias become apparent
Hindsight bias is apparent when someone states that they ‘knew all along’ that a particular team would win the match, a particular individual would be elected to the SRC, a particular question would be on an exam, a specific decision would be made by a manager, that share prices would tumble, and so on.
what is the misinformation effect
the tendency for information acquired after an event to influence the accuracy of the memory of the original event.
A person will mistakenly recall information acquired after an event as being part of that event instead of accurately recalling the information that had been acquired during the event.
an example of the misinformation effect
For example, if someone gives their version of a car accident you saw, this new information may interfere with the accuracy of your eyewitness memory. It is possible for the new information to become part of your memory of the event even though it didn’t occur or you didn’t actually witness it.
can themisinformation effectlead to inaccurate memories and, in some cases, even result in the formation of false memories? Why
yes-
in everyday life, reading or watching a media report of an event may change how you remember the event due to the misinformation effect. Hearing a friend or someone else describe an event from their perspective can also change your memory of what happened. The new information may be integrated with the older memory or used to fill a gap in the memory.
what is the optimism bias
the tendency to overestimate the likelihood of experiencing positive events and underestimate the likelihood of experiencing negative events in the future.
is the optimism bias motivating
yes
what can optimism bias lead to
lead someone to take on difficult challenges and to believe that they are more likely to attain success and less likely to experience misfortune than others.
an example of optimism bias
For example, a person biased in this way will tend to have an unrealistically optimistic view about a particular health risk, believing it is higher for other people than themself. They may, for example, not consider themself at risk from flu, assuming they are healthy, not susceptible to flu, and strong enough to fight it if they somehow caught it.
what is the Dunning-Kruger effect
a type of cognitive bias whereby people overestimate their knowledge or ability, particularly in areas with which they have little to no knowledge or experience.
what does the Dunning-Kruger effect lead people to do
This leads them to reach incorrect conclusions and make inappropriate choices, and they do not have the cognitive ability to recognise their own incompetence.
what factors leads people to overestimate their own capabilities and think of themselves as more expert than those who are better informed? (Dunning-Kruger effect)
lack of knowledge about a particular subject, poorself-awarenessof their ignorance, and low cognitive ability,
can believing that we are much better than we really are and being unaware of our shortcomings have a profound effect on decision-making in everyday life, especially if we believe that our decisions are better than is actually the case?
yes
do we like the psychological discomfort of feeling bad about ourselves when we lack the necessary knowledge or skills, even if what we want to achieve is not particularly important?
No
define heuristics
mental shortcuts that allow us to make quick decisions on limited information.
what is a heuristic
A heuristic is a problem-solving strategy that uses generalisations, or broadly accurate frameworks, based on pervious experiences with similar problems to reduce our cognitive load (the amount of information that our working memory can hold at any given time).
heuristics are also know as… because…
Given a heuristic is based on past experience, it is sometimes referred to as a ‘rule-of-thumb’.
what is the availability heuristic
making a judgment based on how easy or difficult it is to bring specific examples to mind. There is a preference to use information we can quickly recall. The more available information is from long-term memory, the more likely it is that we will base our judgment on that information.
define availability bias
The tendency to think that examples of things that we can quickly recall are more or less common than is actually the case
what is the representativeness heuristic
involves categorising a person, object, event or anything else by judging how closely it matches our idea of a typical member of the category.
what are we doing when we are using the representativeness heuristic
we are making a judgment by comparing people or things to concepts (ideas) or templates we already have in mind.
an example of the representativeness heuristic
For example, if given a choice of the two categories outlaw bikie and school teacher, we are more likely to assign a bearded, heavily tattooed male wearing an old leather vest and dirty jeans to the bikie category. Through past experience, we have an idea of what outlaw bikies may look like based on physical characteristics they seemed to have in common. The bearded male is a much better match for our concept of a typical outlaw bikie than he is for our school teacher concept, so there is also a higher probability of them being an outlaw bikie than a school teacher.
do we also use the representative heuristic when we classify and categorise people on the basis of personal characteristics? give an example
YES
For example, when deciding if someone is trustworthy, kind, gentle, aggressive, racist, sexist, and so on, we may compare one or more known aspects of their character to relevant mental concepts we hold.
what is the affect heuristic
involves making a judgment that is influenced by the emotion being experienced at the time. Our current emotional state, be it happiness, sadness, surprise, fear, disgust, and so on, plays a significant role in our decision-making and problem-solving.
when is the affect heuristic typically used
This heuristic tends to be used when judging the risks and benefits of something during the decision-making process.
if we are in a positive emotional state, are we more likely to judge the risks associated with a decision as (low/high) and the benefits as (low/high)
low, high
do ads try to exploit the affect heuristic to influence purchasing decisions? give an example
yes, Such as equating risk-taking behaviour such as gambling or unhealthy foods with positive emotions.
define prejudice
a negative emotional attitude towards people that belong to specific social groups. It can be a mixture of negative thoughts, stereotypes, fear, jealousy or hostility.
3 examples of prejudice?
sexism, racism, ageism
who is Herbert Blumer
an American sociologist who was a pioneering researcher on prejudice
what did Blumer propose about prejudice
there are four basic characteristics of prejudice which can often be observed among members of a majority social group who hold a prejudiced attitude towards members of a minority group
what are the 4 characteristics of prejudice
they tend to believe that they are superior to the minority group to whom the prejudice is directed
the majority group tend to believe the minority group is different from them and that they ‘do not belong’
the majority group tend to believe that they are more powerful and important than the minority group
a majority group that displays prejudiced attitudes is insecure, fearing the minority group may become more powerful and important than itself.
what is old-fashioned prejudice
a form of prejudice in which members of the majority group openly reject minority group members and their views towards the minority group are obvious and recognisable to others.
an example of old-fashioned prejudice
People who are prejudiced in an old-fashioned way towards another race tend to believe that segregation should occur in all aspects of life, such as employment, schooling, housing and the like.
what is modern prejudice
a form of prejudice which is more subtle, hidden and expressed in ways more likely to be accepted within the majority group.
would someone with an attitude involving modern prejudice publicly support an affirmative action program?
yes, they might publicly support an affirmative (‘positive’) action program to help overcome the disadvantages experienced by minority group members in obtaining employment or access to tertiary education. However, they may have reservations about the fairness of such a program to members of the majority group.
do people with modern prejudice keep their real views private?
yes, they are more likely to not share them openly when it is believed that those views may be socially unacceptable and may reflect on them in an unfavourable way.
what type of prejudice is more common in Australian and most other Western societies?
modern forms of prejudice are more common than old-fashioned forms
why is modern prejudice more common than old-fashioned prejudice
because open expressions of prejudiced attitudes and behaviour such as name-calling, abuse and discrimination are illegal and not socially acceptable.
what is explicit prejudice
prejudice that is consciously held and usually deliberately thought about. Like old-fashioned prejudice, it is typically openly expressed by the person holding it and is within their control.
what is implicit prejudice
prejudice that is typically unconsciously held; that is, the person holding such prejudice is not usually aware that they do so. Implicit prejudices are not usually within the control of the person holding them.
how is prejudice expressed
through behaviour
what is it called when prejudice is expressed
discrimination
discrimination takes place when…
a person or a social group is treated differently than others. The treatment may involve positive or negative behaviour
difference between prejudice and discrimination?
prejudice is an attitude anddiscrimination is behaviour arising from prejudice
when discrimination is a result of prejudice…
it typically involves negative, unfavourable treatment.
what is positive or reverse discrimination
the favourable treatment of a person or social group who is a victim of prejudice
what does positive or reverse discrimination aim to do
It aims to promote greater equality by supporting people who face, or have faced, ongoing discrimination so they can have similar access to opportunities as others in the community
what is direct discrimination
Direct – occurs when someone is treated unfairly and is disadvantaged because of a personal characteristic. (overlooked for a job because of sex)
what is indirect discrimination
Occurs when treating everybody the same way disadvantages someone because of a personal characteristic
example of an indirect discrimination
(e.g. not allowing a student to wear a hijab to school because it is not part of the school uniform or only having stairs to access a service is indirectly discriminating people in wheelchairs).
2 ways to reduce prejudice
Anti-discrimination laws.
Media e.g. current affairs programs, investigative journalists highlighting problems and issues faced by individuals and groups.
one limitation of legislation and education through the media
Although legislation and education through the media (and in schools) have helped reduce prejudice and discrimination, changing laws and informing people does not necessarily mean they will stop.
4 methods psychologists suggest to reduce prejudice
intergroup contact, extended contact,
superordinate goals, cognitive intervention
what is intergroup contact
Increasing direct contact between two groups who are prejudice against each other.
how does intergoup contact work
Research finding indicate that the contact between groups will only reduce prejudice in certain conditions - if there is close ongoing contact, if the two groups have to rely on each other and each group has equal status in the contact situation.
what is extended contact
sustained or ongoing contact either directly or indirectly over a period of time — has helped break down a stereotype that was substantially based on minimal information obtained from secondary sources.
limitation of extended contact
However, extended contact alone doesn’t necessarily mean that you will stop stereotyping all other people in future, including outlaw bikies. Stereotyping and stereotypes are learnt and tend to be resistant to change. Nonetheless, chipping away can make a difference in many cases.
what is the contact hypothesis
Thecontact hypothesisproposes that certain types of direct contact between members of different groups can reduce prejudice.
what does the contact hypothesis assume
The assumption is that close, prolonged contact of a fairly direct nature (one-on-one or face-to-face) leads to a re-evaluation of incorrect stereotypes about the other group and its members, thereby reducing intergroup stereotyping and prejudice.
an example for the contact hypothesis
For example, if members of different groups are able to socialise, they will be able to exchange information and learn things about each other that challenge or break down the stereotypes behind the prejudice.
limitations of the contact hypothesis
However, mere contact over time is insufficient. According to the contact hypothesis, a number of specific conditions must be present for the sustained contact to be effective in reducing prejudice.
what is mutual independence
One condition which must be present for contact to be effective is that the two different groups must have contact that makes them dependent on each other.
explain mutual independence
If two rival groups who dislike and are prejudiced against each other are placed in a contact situation in which they are mutually interdependent — that is, dependent on each other — there is a greater likelihood that the rivalry and negative stereotypes can be broken down, thereby reducing the prejudiced attitudes the groups hold about each other.
what is the Robber’s cave experiment
Sherif’s experiment involved two groups of children who developed negative attitudes towards each other, became bitter rivals and were constantly in conflict, a condition he and his colleagues created at a 3-week summer vacation camp.
participants of the Robber’s cave experiment?
The participants were 22 white, middle-class, Protestant boys aged 11 to 12 with no record of school, psychological or behavioural problems.
how did researchers of the robber’s cave experiment confirm information obtained from school records
researchers observed the children’s behaviour in the playground.
did researchers for the robber’s cave experiment obtain consent from participants
obtained the boys’ informed consent in the presence of their parents.
the robber’s cave participants led to believe that…
the researchers were studying the formation of friendship groups and various aspects of group behaviour.
outline the first phase of the robbers cave experiment
- Boys randomly allocated to two groups
- Groups arrived separately and kept apart in different areas of the camp
- Aim of the first phase was to promote group cohesion
- Activities organized to encourage cooperation and interdependence
- Examples of activities: preparing meals, building a rope bridge, building a diving board
- Activities effectively built group cohesion
- Each group named themselves (Rattlers and Eagles)
- Groups designed a flag and developed unique behaviors and expressions
- Phase 1 lasted for one week
- Cohesiveness within each group well established
- Stage set for conflict at the end of Phase 1
outline phase 2 of the robbers cave experiment
- Second phase involved intergroup competitions
- Hypothesis tested: conflicting aims lead to hostility between groups
- Groups discovered they were sharing the campsite
- Tension and rivalry arose from one group using the other’s facilities
- Questionnaires revealed strong group identification and view of the other group as outsiders
- Researchers deliberately stirred up negative feelings between groups
- Differential treatment and a week-long tournament intensified hostilities
- Flag burning occurred when one group won the tug-of-war competition
- The winning group’s cabins were raided and prizes stolen by the other group
- Name-calling and fist fights erupted during a contact situation
- Experiment transformed well-adjusted boys into hostile troublemakers, as predicted by Sherif
outline phase 3 of the robbers cave experiment
- Third phase aimed to improve relations between groups
- Intergroup cooperation in non-competitive situations attempted
- Sharing meal times and watching movies together
- Failed to improve relations as the groups remained enemies and continued fighting
- Sherif introduced mutual interdependence to overcome rivalry and negative attitudes
- Three situations created where one group alone couldn’t accomplish tasks
- Goal-focused cooperative activities gradually reduced hostility and negative attitudes
- Friendships formed across groups, barriers between groups broken down
- Boys viewed themselves as belonging to one larger group
- Groups actively sought opportunities to mix and treat each other
- Negative ratings of opposing group decreased, prejudice and hostility disappeared
- Mutual interdependence and superordinate goals reduced prejudice and conflict
what is a superordinate goal
a goal that cannot be achieved by any one group alone and overrides all existing goals which each group might have.
give examples of superordinate goals from the robbers cave experiment
The camp’s water system broke down, and both groups needed to work together to repair it.
A movie which both groups wanted to see could be shown only if the cooperated by pooling their money.
A truck which was to collect food for both groups stalled, and could only start if both groups pulled it.
what does “equality of status” mean
for contact between two groups to reduce prejudice between the groups, then the groups must have equal status in the contact situation.
what does “status” mean
Thestatusof a group refers to the importance or ‘standing’ of the group when compared with another group, as perceived by members of the group(s) making the comparison.
what happens when status between two groups arent equal
When status between two groups is not equal, the group members tend to view the other group members differently and may also treat them differently.
is the difference in perceived status between groups an important factor that can maintain or increase prejudice?
yes, also perceived equality of status is a factor that can reduce prejudice.
what is cognitive intervention
Cognitive intervention involves changing the way in which someone thinks about prejudice.
how does cognitive intervention work
Negative stereotypes broken down or challenged.
If people can be encouraged to understand other based on their individual characteristics rather than generalising some of their characteristics to stereotype them, then prejudice can may be reduced.
who is Patricia Devine
an American psychologist who proposed a three-step process that reduces prejudiced attitudes
what is the three-step process in reducing prejudice
the individual must decide that their prejudiced attitude and behaviour are wrong and consciously reject prejudice and stereotyped thinking
they must hold fast to their non-prejudiced beliefs and make these an important part of their personal self-concept; that is, how they think and feel about themself as a person
the individual must learn to suppress or block from conscious awareness prejudicial reactions that may occur and deliberately replace them with non-prejudiced responses that are based on their personal standards.
