2.1 Social cognition (c6)

Question 1

define social cognition

Answer 1

social cognitioninvolves how we perceive, think about and use information to understand and make judgments about ourselves and others in different social situations.

can include categorising ourselves, individuals, groups and social behaviour to assist our understanding.

Question 2

is social cognition good and why

Answer 2

yes
we get better at understanding our own social behaviour and that of others as our cognitive abilities develop and we learn through experience.

Question 3

is social cognition an error-free process? give an example

Answer 3

no because

For example, we can decide to trust someone who shouldn’t have been trusted, and someone who first impressed as likeable can turn out to be unlikeable.

Question 4

define person perception

Answer 4

Person perception refers to the mental processes we use to form impressions and draw conclusions about the personal characteristics of other people.

Question 5

what are first impressions based on

Answer 5

visible cues- primarily based on the way people look and the way they act.

Question 6

can first impressions have a lasting impact on the way we perceive and behave towards a certain person?

Answer 6

yes

Question 7

what are physical cues

Answer 7

the way people look and act

Question 8

is attractiveness an important characteristic of first impressions?

Answer 8

yes-
People who are judged as physically attractive are generally perceived as more interesting, warm, mentally healthy, intelligent, independent, outgoing and socially skilled than unattractive people.

good-looking people are more likely to be perceived as less lonely, less socially anxious and more popular.

Question 9

what is the halo effect

Answer 9

a cognitive bias in which the impression we form about one quality of a person influences our beliefs and expectations about the person in other qualities.

Question 10

what is the reverse halo effect

Answer 10

Thereverse halo effectinvolves an incorrect assumption that a positive characteristic indicates the presence of negative characteristics.

Question 11

what is the horn effect

Answer 11

an incorrect assumption that a negative characteristic indicates the presence of one or more other negative characteristics.

Question 12

give an example of the reverse halo effect

Answer 12

For example, it may be assumed that a good-looking person is shallow, self-centred, ‘stuck up’ and manipulative.

Question 13

give an example of the horn effect

Answer 13

it may be assumed that a student who is disruptive in class is a low achiever.

Question 14

what is a persons body language

Answer 14

an expression of behaviour that enables us to make quick and often accurate judgments about them.

Question 15

are there shared understandings of what many of these expressive behaviours mean

Answer 15

yes

Question 16

give an example of expressive behaviour w shared understanding

Answer 16

generally, in Australia andmany other Western cultures, tapping our fingers when waiting shows impatience, winking an eye at someone demonstrates familiarity, raising an eyebrow indicates disbelief or concern and scratching our head suggests we are puzzled.

Question 17

is eye contact influential

Answer 17

yes Eye contact is one of the most influential forms of non-verbal communication.

Question 18

can we form impressions of people on the basis of their behaviour

Answer 18

yes- may be actions that we personally observe or actions we learn about from others

Question 19

are we more likely to form an accurate impression of someone if we consider what people do rather than their appearance or words alone

Answer 19

yes

Question 20

define salience

Answer 20

saliencerefers to any personal characteristic that is distinctive, prominent, conspicuous or noticeable in its context and therefore attracts attention.

Question 21

examples of salient characteristics

Answer 21

This may be an individual’s gender, race, physical appearance in general, a specific feature such as clothing, height or a facial tattoo, their behaviour, a gesture, something they are holding, and so on.

Question 22

can A characteristic that is salient lead to assumptions that become part of our first impression of a person?

Answer 22

yes

Question 23

what is salience usually produced by

Answer 23

novelty, uniqueness or unexpectedness

Question 24

does low salience attract attention

Answer 24

no- The higher the salience of a characteristic in its surroundings, the more likely it is to be detectable and attract attention.

Question 25

define social categorisation

Answer 25

As person perceivers, we routinely classify each other into different groups on the basis of common characteristics.

Question 26

is social categorisation conscious

Answer 26

Sometimes we do this consciously, but social categorisation more often occurs automatically without our conscious awareness.

Question 27

is social categorisation useful and possibly adaptive?

Answer 27

yes

Question 28

why is social categorisation useful and possibly adaptive?

Answer 28

it allows us to form impressions quickly and use past experience and what we have learnt through the media and our culture to guide new social interactions.

Question 29

what did American psychologist Gordon Allport propose

Answer 29

that people tend to categorise themselves and others into ‘ingroups’ and ‘outgroups’ which can in turn influence their attitudes towards the members of those groups.

Question 30

what is an ingroup

Answer 30

any group that you belong to or identify with as aningroup.

Question 31

give an example of an ingroup

Answer 31

friendship groups, peer group, family, school, religion, sex, race, culture, the country in which you live

Question 32

what is an outgroup

Answer 32

Anoutgroupis any group you do not belong to or identify with.

Question 33

define attribution

Answer 33

the process by which we explain the cause of our own or another person’s behaviour. The term is also used to refer to the explanation we come up with.

Question 34

what are the 3 common types of bias or errors that often affect our attributions

Answer 34

the fundamental attribution error

actor-observer bias

self-serving bias

Question 35

what is attribution-fundamental attribution error

Answer 35

The tendency to overestimate the influence of personal factors and underestimate the impact of situational factors on other people’s behaviour.

When we do this, we attribute a person’s behaviour to internal rather than external factors.

Question 36

why do we make attribution-fundamental attribution errors

Answer 36

saliency bias or just-world belief

Question 37

what is saliency bias

Answer 37

the person’s behaviour tends to be more conspicuous and therefore noticeable (‘salient’) than the situation in which it is occurring.

Question 38

what is just-world belief

Answer 38

When we focus on the person, we tend to do so with a perspective that the world is a just and fair place.

refers to the belief that the world is ajustplace in which people generally get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

Question 39

other names for just-world belief

Answer 39

just-world hypothesisandjust-world fallacy

Question 40

how does just-world belief impact us

Answer 40

This belief allows us to better understand and feel safer in a world where we do not always have control over our circumstances and can therefore be exposed to cruel twists of fate.

Question 41

what is actor-observer bias

Answer 41

Refers to our tendency to attribute our own behaviour to external or situational causes, yet attribute others’ behaviour to internal factors.

Question 42

example of actor-observer bias

Answer 42

For example, if you fail an exam you may blame your failure on an overly difficult paper, but you might say your friend failed because she did not study enough.

Question 43

what is self serving bias

Answer 43

When judging ourselves we tend to take the credit for our successes and attribute failures to situational factors.

Question 44

what is the reason for self serving bias

Answer 44

One explanation of this bias is that we are motivated by a desire to protect our self-esteem so we distance ourselves from failure

Question 45

what are attitudes

Answer 45

Attitudes are ideas about:
Ourselves
Others
Objects
Experiences

Question 46

how are attitudes learned

Answer 46

Our attitudes are learned through experiences and can cause a person to respond in a positive or negative way.

Question 47

criteria of an attitude

Answer 47

Involve an evaluation of something (might be able to place it along a continuum)
Relatively settled and stable (attitudes can change, but are relatively permanent)
Mostly learnt experience

Question 48

what are the three components of attitudes

Answer 48

ABC

Affective, behavioural, cognitive

Question 49

what is the affective component of attitudes

Answer 49

Emotional reaction or feelings
Based on judgement which results in a positive, negative or neutral response.

Question 50

examples of affective components

Answer 50

E.g. “I love pineapple on pizza’’ or “I hate salami”

Question 51

what is the behavioural component of attitudes

Answer 51

Way in which an attitude is expressed through our actions.

Question 52

examples of the behavioural component of attitudes

Answer 52

E.g. avoiding or protesting things we don’t like.

Question 53

cognitive components of attitudes?

Answer 53

the beliefs we have- linked to what we know and develop as a results of our experiences. Some are based on fact and others are false.

Question 54

examples of cognitive components of attitudes

Answer 54

I don’t believe pineapple belongs on pizza because it is sweet and pizza is savory.

Question 55

does the tri-component model propose that all three components must be present before it can be said that an attitude exists

Answer 55

yes

Question 56

are affective, cognitive and behavioural components consistent?

Answer 56

yes, in many cases

Question 57

an example of consistency between the components?

Answer 57

you might feel good about going to school (affective component) and work hard in and out of class (behavioural component) because you believe that good grades are required to get into the tertiary course of most interest to you (cognitive component).

Question 58

are there only affective and cognitive components?

Answer 58

possibly because a person’s behaviour does not always reflect the attitude they hold; that is, the behavioural component is often inconsistent, or ‘out of sync’, withthe affective and cognitive components of theattitude.

Question 59

an example of inconsistency between the components?

Answer 59

For example, a person may know that dental hygiene is important and agrees that 6-monthly dental visits are vital (cognitive component), but refuses to go to the dentist (behavioural component) because the sound of a dental drill makes them feel anxious (affective component).

Question 60

are there cases where two components are inconsistent with the 3rd component- and why does this happen

Answer 60

yes- this often results from one or more of the components being stronger, or more intense, than the other(s).

Question 61

an example of inconsistency between the components where 2 components are inconsistent w the 3rd component and one or more components are stronger than the other(s)

Answer 61

a person may be in love with their partner (affective component), have doubts about the future of the relationship (cognitive component), but continue in the relationship (behavioural component).
Consider also the example of a person who hates pumpkin soup (affective component) but eats it when staying at a friend’s place (behavioural component) because the person believes it is the polite thing to do (cognitive component).

Question 62

Why are attitudes and behaviour frequently linked?

Answer 62

because many people believe that attitudes play a significant role in influencing or even directing behaviour.

Question 63

true or false: a person’s attitudes + behaviour are always consistent

Answer 63

false- sometimes a person’s attitudes and observable behaviour will be unrelated or only slightly related. Conversely, our actual behaviours may not always reflect our true attitudes.

Question 64

some factors that determine whether attitudes and behaviour will match:

Answer 64

how strongly we hold the attitude
how easily the attitude comes to mind
the situation we are in
our personal belief that we can actually perform the behaviour associated with an attitude.

Question 65

define stereotype

Answer 65

a generalisation about the personal characteristics of the members of a social group.

Question 66

are stereotypes fixed and resistant to change?

Answer 66

yes

Question 67

are stereotypes still fixed even when we encounter someone with characteristics that do not match our stereotype?

Answer 67

yes

Question 68

are stereotypes inaccurate

Answer 68

sometimes

Question 69

can stereotypes lead to stigmatisation

Answer 69

yes

Question 70

define stigma

Answer 70

a negative label associated with disapproval or rejection by others who are not labelled in that way

Question 71

can stereotypes lead to prejudice

Answer 71

yes

Question 72

can prejudice lead to discrimination

Answer 72

yes

Question 73

what is cognitive dissonance

Answer 73

an unpleasant psychological state that occurs when people become aware that there is inconsistency among their various beliefs, attitudes or other “cognitions” or that their behaviour conflicts w their cognitions

Question 74

is dissonance likely to be experienced by someone when their behaviour is different from the way they believe they should behave

Answer 74

yes

Question 75

examples of cognitive dissonance

Answer 75

a student who believes cheating is wrong but does so on a test is likely to experience cognitive dissonance- people who smoke even though they know that smoking is harmful to their health

Question 76

what can the unpleasant experience of cognitive dissonance do

Answer 76

motivate people to avoid it and actively work to reduce/abolish it

Question 77

what do people do to reduce or avoid dissonance

Answer 77

choose the easiest course

Question 78

1st way of reducing/avoiding dissonance

Answer 78

change dissonant opinion

Question 79

an example of the first way of reducing/avoiding dissonance

Answer 79

for ex: if you hold the belief that sport is necessary to maintain good health yet do not play any sport, you might think “playing strenuous sport is not such a good idea and I probably get enough exercise in daily activities anyway”

Question 80

2nd way of reducing/avoiding dissonance?

Answer 80

changing the behaviour to suit the dissonant cognition

Question 81

an ex. of the 2nd way

Answer 81

if experiencing dissonance bc of playing no sports- reduce it by taking up running

Question 82

what is the 3rd way of reducing/avoiding dissonance?

Answer 82

add new cognitions or supportive elements to outweigh the dissonant cognition or to rationalise/justify the behaviour

Question 83

example of 3rd way

Answer 83

“I don’t play sport bc i have a bad knee”

Question 84

can ppl cope w dissonance in ways that aren’t healthy?

Answer 84

yes

Question 85

example of unhealthy dissonance coping mechanisms

Answer 85

they may block out contradictory thoughts or numb themselves w drugs- any addiction rlly, like social media addiction

Question 86

what is cognitive bias

Answer 86

a systematic error of judgement and faulty decision-making- aka a distorted or mistaken way of thinking that usually leads to inaccurate or unreasonable conclusions

Question 87

is cognitive bias a “normal” psychological process that can occur in all people to a greater/lesser extent

Answer 87

yes

Question 88

can cognitive bias become a habitual way of distorted thinking which negatively impacts on a person’s personal and professional life?

Answer 88

yes

Question 89

what else does cognitive bias influence other than how we think

Answer 89

how we feel + behave- decision-mkaing and choices in a wide range of areas like
- personal / social behaviour
- med practice
- mental health care
- education
- finance

Question 90

cognitive bias other than actor-observer, halo effect and self-serving

Answer 90

anchoring, attentional, confirmation, false-consensus bias, hindsight, misinformation effect, optimism bias, dunning-kruger effect

Question 91

what is anchoring bias?

Answer 91

the tendency to rely heavily on the very first piece of info received (aka anchor) when making a decision and to not modify this anchor sufficiently in light of later info

Question 92

what can anchoring bias lead to

Answer 92

bad judgment + decision making when the first available info is incorrect or when over-reliance on realy info blocks objective consideration of more important later info

Question 93

example of anchoring bias

Answer 93

E.g. suppose you are shopping online for a hoodie and first see one you really like that is priced at $450 and way above your budget. You will be prone to thinking that any amount below that is good value, even if it isn’t, and therefore possibly not search for a better deal. In this case, your decision is influenced by an ‘anchor’ (the first price seen) which is serving as a reference point for your decision-making.

Question 94

what is attentional bias

Answer 94

the tendency to prioritise attention to certain information (or other stimuli) over other information. This means that when making a decision, we may not identify and weigh up all the pros and cons, or consider all options and possible outcomes.

Question 95

example of attentional bias

Answer 95

when buying a hoodie within your budget you may focus on its colour, size and overall look and feel, disregarding how warm or weather-proof it may be, whether it is made of colourfast material, or if it can be washed at home or needs expensive dry-cleaning to avoid wrecking it after a few washes.

Question 96

what is confirmation bias

Answer 96

the tendency to seek, recall or interpret information in a way that confirms existing beliefs or expectations, while dismissing or failing to seek contradictory evidence.

Question 97

what can confirmation bias lead to

Answer 97

This can lead to bad choices or decision-making due to the failure to access or consider all possible information that may yield a better outcome in a rational, open-minded manner.

Question 98

is confirmation bias is a means of avoiding or dealing with cognitive dissonance when evidence or opposing views do not support beliefs that are of importance to us?

Answer 98

yes

Question 99

what can confirmation bias help a person do

Answer 99

help an individual justify their beliefs and downplay or not see contradictory information, thereby avoiding dissonance.

Question 100

an example of confirmation bias

Answer 100

E.g. someone who has a strong pre-existing belief that climate change is a myth rather than a fact will seek and favour information that supports their belief and ignore opposing information. They will prefer media and information sources that share their views and avoid, ignore, downplay or criticise arguments or facts that go against their views, regardless of the quality or strength of supporting evidence to the contrary. They may see the flaws in arguments that are contradictory to their own but are unable to see weaknesses in their own side.

Question 101

what is false-consensus bias

Answer 101

the tendency to overestimate the extent to which other people are like them in terms of sharing beliefs, personal characteristics or behaviours.Essentially, this means that peopleoften assumethat others aremuch more like them than they actually are — an assumption that others like what we like and do what we prefer to do.

Question 102

an example of false-consensus bias

Answer 102

E.g. someone may assume that all their friends agree with the racist and sexist comments they make despite the fact that they actually find them offensive but haven’t spoken up.

can cause someone with extreme political beliefs to incorrectly assume that the majority of the population agrees with them and shares those beliefs, even though most people don’t.

Question 103

what is false-consensus bias also called

Answer 103

thefalse-consensus effect

Question 104

what is hindsight bias

Answer 104

the tendency, only after an event has occurred, to overestimate the extent to which the outcome could have been foreseen. This occurs regardless of the randomness or unpredictability of the event. Events are incorrectly understood to be more predictable than they actually are.

Question 105

an example of hindsight bias

Answer 105

E.g. people with hindsight biasbelieve they should have anticipated certain outcomes, which might only be possible, if at all, with the benefit of knowledge and perspective following the event’s completion. They may overlook the possibility that at the time of the event, important information was not actually available.

Question 106

when does hindsight bias become apparent

Answer 106

Hindsight bias is apparent when someone states that they ‘knew all along’ that a particular team would win the match, a particular individual would be elected to the SRC, a particular question would be on an exam, a specific decision would be made by a manager, that share prices would tumble, and so on.

Question 107

what is the misinformation effect

Answer 107

the tendency for information acquired after an event to influence the accuracy of the memory of the original event.

A person will mistakenly recall information acquired after an event as being part of that event instead of accurately recalling the information that had been acquired during the event.

Question 108

an example of the misinformation effect

Answer 108

For example, if someone gives their version of a car accident you saw, this new information may interfere with the accuracy of your eyewitness memory. It is possible for the new information to become part of your memory of the event even though it didn’t occur or you didn’t actually witness it.

Question 109

can themisinformation effectlead to inaccurate memories and, in some cases, even result in the formation of false memories? Why

Answer 109

yes-

in everyday life, reading or watching a media report of an event may change how you remember the event due to the misinformation effect. Hearing a friend or someone else describe an event from their perspective can also change your memory of what happened. The new information may be integrated with the older memory or used to fill a gap in the memory.

Question 110

what is the optimism bias

Answer 110

the tendency to overestimate the likelihood of experiencing positive events and underestimate the likelihood of experiencing negative events in the future.

Question 111

is the optimism bias motivating

Answer 111

yes

Question 112

what can optimism bias lead to

Answer 112

lead someone to take on difficult challenges and to believe that they are more likely to attain success and less likely to experience misfortune than others.

Question 113

an example of optimism bias

Answer 113

For example, a person biased in this way will tend to have an unrealistically optimistic view about a particular health risk, believing it is higher for other people than themself. They may, for example, not consider themself at risk from flu, assuming they are healthy, not susceptible to flu, and strong enough to fight it if they somehow caught it.

Question 114

what is the Dunning-Kruger effect

Answer 114

a type of cognitive bias whereby people overestimate their knowledge or ability, particularly in areas with which they have little to no knowledge or experience.

Question 115

what does the Dunning-Kruger effect lead people to do

Answer 115

This leads them to reach incorrect conclusions and make inappropriate choices, and they do not have the cognitive ability to recognise their own incompetence.

Question 116

what factors leads people to overestimate their own capabilities and think of themselves as more expert than those who are better informed? (Dunning-Kruger effect)

Answer 116

lack of knowledge about a particular subject, poorself-awarenessof their ignorance, and low cognitive ability,

Question 117

can believing that we are much better than we really are and being unaware of our shortcomings have a profound effect on decision-making in everyday life, especially if we believe that our decisions are better than is actually the case?

Answer 117

yes

Question 118

do we like the psychological discomfort of feeling bad about ourselves when we lack the necessary knowledge or skills, even if what we want to achieve is not particularly important?

Answer 118

No

Question 119

define heuristics

Answer 119

mental shortcuts that allow us to make quick decisions on limited information.



Question 120

what is a heuristic

Answer 120

A heuristic is a problem-solving strategy that uses generalisations, or broadly accurate frameworks, based on pervious experiences with similar problems to reduce our cognitive load (the amount of information that our working memory can hold at any given time).

Question 121

heuristics are also know as… because…

Answer 121

Given a heuristic is based on past experience, it is sometimes referred to as a ‘rule-of-thumb’.

Question 122

what is the availability heuristic

Answer 122

making a judgment based on how easy or difficult it is to bring specific examples to mind. There is a preference to use information we can quickly recall. The more available information is from long-term memory, the more likely it is that we will base our judgment on that information.

Question 123

define availability bias

Answer 123

The tendency to think that examples of things that we can quickly recall are more or less common than is actually the case

Question 124

what is the representativeness heuristic

Answer 124

involves categorising a person, object, event or anything else by judging how closely it matches our idea of a typical member of the category.

Question 125

what are we doing when we are using the representativeness heuristic

Answer 125

we are making a judgment by comparing people or things to concepts (ideas) or templates we already have in mind.

Question 126

an example of the representativeness heuristic

Answer 126

For example, if given a choice of the two categories outlaw bikie and school teacher, we are more likely to assign a bearded, heavily tattooed male wearing an old leather vest and dirty jeans to the bikie category. Through past experience, we have an idea of what outlaw bikies may look like based on physical characteristics they seemed to have in common. The bearded male is a much better match for our concept of a typical outlaw bikie than he is for our school teacher concept, so there is also a higher probability of them being an outlaw bikie than a school teacher.

Question 127

do we also use the representative heuristic when we classify and categorise people on the basis of personal characteristics? give an example

Answer 127

YES
For example, when deciding if someone is trustworthy, kind, gentle, aggressive, racist, sexist, and so on, we may compare one or more known aspects of their character to relevant mental concepts we hold.

Question 128

what is the affect heuristic

Answer 128

involves making a judgment that is influenced by the emotion being experienced at the time. Our current emotional state, be it happiness, sadness, surprise, fear, disgust, and so on, plays a significant role in our decision-making and problem-solving.

Question 129

when is the affect heuristic typically used

Answer 129

This heuristic tends to be used when judging the risks and benefits of something during the decision-making process.

Question 130

if we are in a positive emotional state, are we more likely to judge the risks associated with a decision as (low/high) and the benefits as (low/high)

Answer 130

low, high

Question 131

do ads try to exploit the affect heuristic to influence purchasing decisions? give an example

Answer 131

yes, Such as equating risk-taking behaviour such as gambling or unhealthy foods with positive emotions.

Question 132

define prejudice

Answer 132

a negative emotional attitude towards people that belong to specific social groups. It can be a mixture of negative thoughts, stereotypes, fear, jealousy or hostility.

Question 133

3 examples of prejudice?

Answer 133

sexism, racism, ageism

Question 134

who is Herbert Blumer

Answer 134

an American sociologist who was a pioneering researcher on prejudice

Question 135

what did Blumer propose about prejudice

Answer 135

there are four basic characteristics of prejudice which can often be observed among members of a majority social group who hold a prejudiced attitude towards members of a minority group

Question 136

what are the 4 characteristics of prejudice

Answer 136

they tend to believe that they are superior to the minority group to whom the prejudice is directed

the majority group tend to believe the minority group is different from them and that they ‘do not belong’

the majority group tend to believe that they are more powerful and important than the minority group

a majority group that displays prejudiced attitudes is insecure, fearing the minority group may become more powerful and important than itself.

Question 137

what is old-fashioned prejudice

Answer 137

a form of prejudice in which members of the majority group openly reject minority group members and their views towards the minority group are obvious and recognisable to others.

Question 138

an example of old-fashioned prejudice

Answer 138

People who are prejudiced in an old-fashioned way towards another race tend to believe that segregation should occur in all aspects of life, such as employment, schooling, housing and the like.

Question 139

what is modern prejudice

Answer 139

a form of prejudice which is more subtle, hidden and expressed in ways more likely to be accepted within the majority group.

Question 140

would someone with an attitude involving modern prejudice publicly support an affirmative action program?

Answer 140

yes, they might publicly support an affirmative (‘positive’) action program to help overcome the disadvantages experienced by minority group members in obtaining employment or access to tertiary education. However, they may have reservations about the fairness of such a program to members of the majority group.

Question 141

do people with modern prejudice keep their real views private?

Answer 141

yes, they are more likely to not share them openly when it is believed that those views may be socially unacceptable and may reflect on them in an unfavourable way.

Question 142

what type of prejudice is more common in Australian and most other Western societies?

Answer 142

modern forms of prejudice are more common than old-fashioned forms

Question 143

why is modern prejudice more common than old-fashioned prejudice

Answer 143

because open expressions of prejudiced attitudes and behaviour such as name-calling, abuse and discrimination are illegal and not socially acceptable.

Question 144

what is explicit prejudice

Answer 144

prejudice that is consciously held and usually deliberately thought about. Like old-fashioned prejudice, it is typically openly expressed by the person holding it and is within their control.

Question 145

what is implicit prejudice

Answer 145

prejudice that is typically unconsciously held; that is, the person holding such prejudice is not usually aware that they do so. Implicit prejudices are not usually within the control of the person holding them.

Question 146

how is prejudice expressed

Answer 146

through behaviour

Question 147

what is it called when prejudice is expressed

Answer 147

discrimination

Question 148

discrimination takes place when…

Answer 148

a person or a social group is treated differently than others. The treatment may involve positive or negative behaviour

Question 149

difference between prejudice and discrimination?

Answer 149

prejudice is an attitude anddiscrimination is behaviour arising from prejudice

Question 150

when discrimination is a result of prejudice…

Answer 150

it typically involves negative, unfavourable treatment.

Question 151

what is positive or reverse discrimination

Answer 151

the favourable treatment of a person or social group who is a victim of prejudice

Question 152

what does positive or reverse discrimination aim to do

Answer 152

It aims to promote greater equality by supporting people who face, or have faced, ongoing discrimination so they can have similar access to opportunities as others in the community

Question 153

what is direct discrimination

Answer 153

Direct – occurs when someone is treated unfairly and is disadvantaged because of a personal characteristic. (overlooked for a job because of sex)

Question 154

what is indirect discrimination

Answer 154

Occurs when treating everybody the same way disadvantages someone because of a personal characteristic

Question 155

example of an indirect discrimination

Answer 155

(e.g. not allowing a student to wear a hijab to school because it is not part of the school uniform or only having stairs to access a service is indirectly discriminating people in wheelchairs).

Question 156

2 ways to reduce prejudice

Answer 156

Anti-discrimination laws.
Media e.g. current affairs programs, investigative journalists highlighting problems and issues faced by individuals and groups.

Question 157

one limitation of legislation and education through the media

Answer 157

Although legislation and education through the media (and in schools) have helped reduce prejudice and discrimination, changing laws and informing people does not necessarily mean they will stop.

Question 158

4 methods psychologists suggest to reduce prejudice

Answer 158

intergroup contact, extended contact,
superordinate goals, cognitive intervention

Question 159

what is intergroup contact

Answer 159

Increasing direct contact between two groups who are prejudice against each other.

Question 160

how does intergoup contact work

Answer 160

Research finding indicate that the contact between groups will only reduce prejudice in certain conditions - if there is close ongoing contact, if the two groups have to rely on each other and each group has equal status in the contact situation.

Question 161

what is extended contact

Answer 161

sustained or ongoing contact either directly or indirectly over a period of time — has helped break down a stereotype that was substantially based on minimal information obtained from secondary sources.

Question 162

limitation of extended contact

Answer 162

However, extended contact alone doesn’t necessarily mean that you will stop stereotyping all other people in future, including outlaw bikies. Stereotyping and stereotypes are learnt and tend to be resistant to change. Nonetheless, chipping away can make a difference in many cases.

Question 163

what is the contact hypothesis

Answer 163

Thecontact hypothesisproposes that certain types of direct contact between members of different groups can reduce prejudice.

Question 164

what does the contact hypothesis assume

Answer 164

The assumption is that close, prolonged contact of a fairly direct nature (one-on-one or face-to-face) leads to a re-evaluation of incorrect stereotypes about the other group and its members, thereby reducing intergroup stereotyping and prejudice.

Question 165

an example for the contact hypothesis

Answer 165

For example, if members of different groups are able to socialise, they will be able to exchange information and learn things about each other that challenge or break down the stereotypes behind the prejudice.

Question 166

limitations of the contact hypothesis

Answer 166

However, mere contact over time is insufficient. According to the contact hypothesis, a number of specific conditions must be present for the sustained contact to be effective in reducing prejudice.

Question 167

what is mutual independence

Answer 167

One condition which must be present for contact to be effective is that the two different groups must have contact that makes them dependent on each other.

Question 168

explain mutual independence

Answer 168

If two rival groups who dislike and are prejudiced against each other are placed in a contact situation in which they are mutually interdependent — that is, dependent on each other — there is a greater likelihood that the rivalry and negative stereotypes can be broken down, thereby reducing the prejudiced attitudes the groups hold about each other.

Question 169

what is the Robber’s cave experiment

Answer 169

Sherif’s experiment involved two groups of children who developed negative attitudes towards each other, became bitter rivals and were constantly in conflict, a condition he and his colleagues created at a 3-week summer vacation camp.

Question 170

participants of the Robber’s cave experiment?

Answer 170

The participants were 22 white, middle-class, Protestant boys aged 11 to 12 with no record of school, psychological or behavioural problems.

Question 171

how did researchers of the robber’s cave experiment confirm information obtained from school records

Answer 171

researchers observed the children’s behaviour in the playground.

Question 172

did researchers for the robber’s cave experiment obtain consent from participants

Answer 172

obtained the boys’ informed consent in the presence of their parents.

Question 173

the robber’s cave participants led to believe that…

Answer 173

the researchers were studying the formation of friendship groups and various aspects of group behaviour.

Question 174

outline the first phase of the robbers cave experiment

Answer 174

• Boys randomly allocated to two groups
• Groups arrived separately and kept apart in different areas of the camp
• Aim of the first phase was to promote group cohesion
• Activities organized to encourage cooperation and interdependence
• Examples of activities: preparing meals, building a rope bridge, building a diving board
• Activities effectively built group cohesion
• Each group named themselves (Rattlers and Eagles)
• Groups designed a flag and developed unique behaviors and expressions
• Phase 1 lasted for one week
• Cohesiveness within each group well established
• Stage set for conflict at the end of Phase 1

Question 175

outline phase 2 of the robbers cave experiment

Answer 175

• Second phase involved intergroup competitions
• Hypothesis tested: conflicting aims lead to hostility between groups
• Groups discovered they were sharing the campsite
• Tension and rivalry arose from one group using the other’s facilities
• Questionnaires revealed strong group identification and view of the other group as outsiders
• Researchers deliberately stirred up negative feelings between groups
• Differential treatment and a week-long tournament intensified hostilities
• Flag burning occurred when one group won the tug-of-war competition
• The winning group’s cabins were raided and prizes stolen by the other group
• Name-calling and fist fights erupted during a contact situation
• Experiment transformed well-adjusted boys into hostile troublemakers, as predicted by Sherif

Question 176

outline phase 3 of the robbers cave experiment

Answer 176

• Third phase aimed to improve relations between groups
• Intergroup cooperation in non-competitive situations attempted
• Sharing meal times and watching movies together
• Failed to improve relations as the groups remained enemies and continued fighting
• Sherif introduced mutual interdependence to overcome rivalry and negative attitudes
• Three situations created where one group alone couldn’t accomplish tasks
• Goal-focused cooperative activities gradually reduced hostility and negative attitudes
• Friendships formed across groups, barriers between groups broken down
• Boys viewed themselves as belonging to one larger group
• Groups actively sought opportunities to mix and treat each other
• Negative ratings of opposing group decreased, prejudice and hostility disappeared
• Mutual interdependence and superordinate goals reduced prejudice and conflict

Question 177

what is a superordinate goal

Answer 177

a goal that cannot be achieved by any one group alone and overrides all existing goals which each group might have.

Question 178

give examples of superordinate goals from the robbers cave experiment

Answer 178

The camp’s water system broke down, and both groups needed to work together to repair it.

A movie which both groups wanted to see could be shown only if the cooperated by pooling their money.

A truck which was to collect food for both groups stalled, and could only start if both groups pulled it.

Question 179

what does “equality of status” mean

Answer 179

for contact between two groups to reduce prejudice between the groups, then the groups must have equal status in the contact situation.

Question 180

what does “status” mean

Answer 180

Thestatusof a group refers to the importance or ‘standing’ of the group when compared with another group, as perceived by members of the group(s) making the comparison.

Question 181

what happens when status between two groups arent equal

Answer 181

When status between two groups is not equal, the group members tend to view the other group members differently and may also treat them differently.

Question 182

is the difference in perceived status between groups an important factor that can maintain or increase prejudice?

Answer 182

yes, also perceived equality of status is a factor that can reduce prejudice.

Question 183

what is cognitive intervention

Answer 183

Cognitive intervention involves changing the way in which someone thinks about prejudice.

Question 184

how does cognitive intervention work

Answer 184

Negative stereotypes broken down or challenged.
If people can be encouraged to understand other based on their individual characteristics rather than generalising some of their characteristics to stereotype them, then prejudice can may be reduced.

Question 185

who is Patricia Devine

Answer 185

an American psychologist who proposed a three-step process that reduces prejudiced attitudes

Question 186

what is the three-step process in reducing prejudice

Answer 186

the individual must decide that their prejudiced attitude and behaviour are wrong and consciously reject prejudice and stereotyped thinking

they must hold fast to their non-prejudiced beliefs and make these an important part of their personal self-concept; that is, how they think and feel about themself as a person

the individual must learn to suppress or block from conscious awareness prejudicial reactions that may occur and deliberately replace them with non-prejudiced responses that are based on their personal standards.