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Neuro > C/B Exam 1 > Flashcards

C/B Exam 1 Flashcards

1
Q

`What is meant by ethics?

A

-how to treat animals in a good way
-voice (or lack of)
-minimize suffering
-best possible living conditions
-meaningful existence
-the concept of truth (scientific discovery)
-the greatest good for the greatest number

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2
Q

the greatest good for the greatest number of people

A

utilitarianism

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3
Q

The Five Freedom

A

FREEDOM FROM:
-hunger and thirst
-discomfort
-pain, injury and disease
-express normal behavior
-fear and distress

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4
Q

3 Rs of Animal research

A

-REPLACE: the use of animals whenever possible
-REDUCE: the number of animals needed to a min
-REFINE: tests to cause animals the least amount of distress

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5
Q

What is the US institutional level of ethics

A

IACUC – institutional animal care and use committee

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6
Q

what is the US federal level of ethics

A

USDA, AWA (implements and enforces the national animal welfare act)

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7
Q

responsible for the guidance on and for monitoring compliance with the Public Health Services policy on the humane care and use of lab animals

A

office of lab animal welfare (OLAW)

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8
Q

-prominent proponent for the humane treatment of livestock for slaughter
-stress, enrichment, etc.

A

Temple Grandin

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9
Q

why do we think about ethics in animal research

A

-to inspire thoughtful and qualified discussions
-good scientific practice
-animal welfare (maximizing good – minimizing suffering)
-regulatory issues
-interpretation by researchers
-research integrity
-research planning
-morality
-truth/scientific discovery

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10
Q

-founder of clinical and cognitive neuroscience
-coined the term “neurology”
-connected Brian (abnormalities) and behavior (autopsies)

A

Anne green & Thomas willis

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11
Q

-brain –> thoughts: ____ (then brain is source of thoughts *body and mind as one)

A

MONISM (Thales, armstole, ancient Egyptian)

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12
Q

brain (body) + mind were separate

A

Dualism (descartes)

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13
Q

-if you use one area more of the brain it’ll grow
-Franz Josef Gall

A

Modularity

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14
Q

-got rid of regions of the brain to prove parts are important
-Marie Jean Pierre Flourens –> aggregate field theory) the whole brain participates in the behavior)

A

connectome

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15
Q

speech impairments and left hemisphere lesions

A

marc dax

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16
Q

patients with epilepsy –> topopgrapguhucal map – homunculus (wilder penfield)
-topographical maps by stimulating different brain regions
-behaviors are complex – require coordinated activity of many regions

A

John hughlings Jackson

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17
Q

-aphasia (understand language but speech impaired)
-left hemisphere (inferior frontal lobe) syphilitic lesion –> Broca’s area

A

Paul Broca

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18
Q

-can’t understand language
-lesion –posterior left hemisphere –> _____ area

A

Carl Wernicke

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19
Q

characterized 52 distinct regions

A

Korbinian Brodmann

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20
Q

-diff staining methods (silver chromate)

A

cytoarchitecture

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21
Q

-syncytium: brain is a continuous mass that shares cytoplasm

A

Camillo Golgi

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22
Q

-neurons are discrete entities
-neuron doctrine

A

Ramon y cajal

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23
Q

-nervous system made of individual cells
-neuronal transmission in one direction

A

neuron doctrine

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24
Q

electrical current is a medium for information transfer in the brain, not a byproduct of activity

A

Hermann Von Helmholtz

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25
Q

coined the term synapse

A

sir Charles Sherrington

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26
Q

-inductive reasoning
-stats
-probabilities
-not concerned with personal mental States

A

logic

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27
Q

-knowledge can be gained though reason, truth is not intellectual not sensory
-grew out of enlightenment period
-replaced religion amongst scientists
-descartes, Leibniz, spinoza

A

rationalism

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28
Q

-all knowledge comes from sensory experience
-the brain is a blank space (Tabula RAZA)
-based on associationism (stimulus–> response)
-John locke, David Hume, John stuart Mill, Thomas Hobbes

A

empiricism

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29
Q

-learning & memory could be studied empirically
-THE FORGETTING CURVE
-the spacing effect

A

Hermaan Ebbingghaus

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30
Q

-rewarding stimulus –> response –> habit
-reinforcement learning

A

Edward Thorndike

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31
Q

-blank space (tabula rasa) philosophy
-anything can be learned
-in contrast to Philosophy

A

John b Watson (pure behaviorist)

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32
Q

-operant (instrumental) conditioning/ classisical conditioning
-Skinner box/ pavlov’s dogs

A

B.F skinner / Ivan Pavlov

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33
Q

adds positive stimulus so behavior continues
ex. you get a paycheck so u continue to go to wok

A

positive reinforcement

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34
Q

remove (negative) stimulus behavior continues

ex. take meds to get rid of pain

A

negative reinforcement

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35
Q

add (negative) stimulus behavior stops
-ex. u are embarrassed when drunk in front of friends so u no longer drink with them

A

punishment

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36
Q

remove (positive) stimulus behavior stops
ex. u feel less of a thrill each Time you skydive so u no longer skydive

A

extinction

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37
Q

-learning has a biological basis
*CELLS THAT FIRE TOGETHER WIRE TOGETHER
-neurons can come together in to a single processing unit: cell assembly
-connection patterns of these units make up the ever changing algorithms that determine a Brain’s response to a stimulus
-the brain is active all the time – sensory input modulates this activity
-artificial neural networks

A

Donald Hebb

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38
Q

-visual system, cerebellum, hippocampus, and memory
-highly influenced computation neuroscience and AI
-memory traces can be formed in the hippocampus –recurrent collateral CA3
-raphael lorrente de No

A

David Marr

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39
Q

-anatomical evidence for multiple memory systems
-cognition, not just behavior
-HM

A

Brenda Milner

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40
Q

-brain as a computer/information processor
-George miller rejected that only behavior should be studied

A

cognitive awakening / revolution

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41
Q

-associationism/ behaviorism could not explain how languages are learned
-Chomsky and George miller –> field of cognitive psychology emerged
-holistic/gestalt perspective
-interdisciplinary
-linguistics ands com sci –? psych and neuro

A

Noam Chomsky

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42
Q

-biochem, anatomy, electrophysiology, pharmacology, and behavior
-first description of the circuitry of the prefrontal cortex in the relation to working memory
-dopamine on PFC
-phase shift in the understanding mental illness ex. sz

A

patricia Goldman rakic

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43
Q

-typically in intact organisms
*ADDRESSES THE FUNCTION OF NEURAL CIRCUITS
-goal is to understand the function of the nervous system at a variety of levels, from single cells to entire networks that mediate complex behaviors such as vision, audition, social interaction, motor responses, and learning
-focused on how ensemble properties in the brain such as the activity of neuronal circuits –> giving rise to internal brain states and behavior
-traditionally involved electrophysiology recording sand computational approaches that attempt to decode how the brain transforms inputs and functional outputs
-more recently –> techniques that allow manipulation (optogenetics, chemogenetics) & imaging of neuron, neurocircuits, their inputs + outputs

A

systems neuroscience

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44
Q

these neurons take sensory information from the environment and sends the signal to the brain

A

sensory neuron

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45
Q

these neurons communicate info form the brain to tissues and organs throughout the body, allowing for movement

A

motor neurons

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46
Q

these neurons make up majority of the neurons in the body. they are essentially the “middle man” transmitting info between the sensory and motor neurons.

*key role in learning, memory, and planning

A

interneurons

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47
Q

what are the different types of neuroglia in the CNS

A

-ependymal cells
-astrocytes
-oligodendrocytes
-microglia

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48
Q

what are the different types of neuroglia in the PNS

A

-satellite cells
-schwaan cells

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49
Q

what are the different glial cells and what is their function

A

-astrocytes, microglial cells, and oligodendrocytes
-function: structural support, electrical insulation, and modulation

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50
Q

*CREATE BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER (btw CNS and blood)
-protect against solutes in bloodstream from entering the brain and allows hydrophobic O2, CO2, & hormones
-release NTs and modulates synaptic strength
—-directly or indirectly regulate repute
—-plays a role in plasticity

A

astrocytes

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51
Q

-form myelin (Schwan cells of this in periphery)
-squeeze out cytoplasm
-electrical insulator – facilitates salatory conduction

A

oligodendrocytes

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52
Q

-phagocytes (remove damaged cells)

A

microglial cells

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53
Q

do glial cells proliferate

A

yes

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54
Q

-cell body
-salty intracellular fluid (ions)
-Na, K, Ca, Cl
-proteins

A

Soma

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55
Q

-receive input from other neurons
-arborization – can be complex or simple
-spines (specialized processes)
-signals gathered

A

dendrites

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56
Q

-single process extending from cell body
-electrical signals travel along axon

A

axons

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57
Q

contains vesicles with NT

A

axon terminal

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58
Q

ome axons branch to increase signal transmission

A

axon collaterals

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59
Q

gaps in myelination

A

nodes of ranvier

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60
Q

specialized structure where neurons communicate

A

synapse

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61
Q

space between the neurons

A

synaptic cleft

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62
Q

-receive, evaluate, transmit info
-within a neuron
-between neurons
–chemical and electrical synapses
— presynatpuc and post synaptic

neurons firing –> action potentials
-energy is needed

A

neuronal firing

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63
Q

form of electrical impulse (initiated by a change in electrical potential)

A

energy

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64
Q

(-70 mv)
-voltage is determined by the difference in conc of Na, K, Cl ions insert and outside of cell

A

resting membrane potenial

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65
Q

measures voltage of neuron

A

oscilloscope

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66
Q

-transmembrane proteins
-ion channels & ion pumps

A

Membrane = lipid bilayer

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67
Q

-passive transport
-WITH electrochemical or concentration (ionic) gradient

A

Ion Channels

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68
Q

-selectively permeable to one type of ion

A

hydrophilic channel

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69
Q

the state of quality of a membrane that causes it allow liquids or gases to pass through it

A

permeability

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70
Q

-active transport (requires energy – ATP hydrolysis)
*AGAINST CONC GRADIENT
-2K in , 3Na+ out
—helps keep the inside of the cell negative

(THINK SALTY BANANA)

A

ion pumps

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71
Q

-start of the axon
-spike triggering zone
-summation converges here
-Na VGIC are densely found here & nodes of ranvier
-if summation results in membrane potential moving from -70 to -55 mV (threshold of excitation) then action potential triggered — neuron is depolarized — ALL OR NONE PHENOMENON

A

axon hillock

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72
Q

-threshold is reached (-55mV)
-Na+ VGIC open –> Na flows in
-positive ion influx further depolarizes neuron opening more VGICs

A

Depolarization

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73
Q

-at peak action potential (+30mV) K+ VGIC open allowing Ruch of sodium out of the cell and sodium VGIC closes

A

repolarization (process of shifting the membrane potential back toward resting)

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74
Q

Na+ VGIC close and since K+ VGIC stays open, cell becomes hyper polarized
-overshoots to about -80 mV –> refectory period

A

hyperpolarization

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75
Q

-during this state na+ VGIC cannot open again

A

refractory period

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76
Q

no action potentials can be generated

A

absolute refractory period

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77
Q

only large depolarizing currents can trigger an action potential
-limit cells to ~200 APs/sec
-APS are ALL OR NONE – amplitudes are the same – firing rate I important
-causes AP to propagate DOWN the axon

A

relative refractory period

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78
Q

-spontaneous firing without presynaptic action potentials
-most neurons fire in ____ manner
-neurons are active at some basal level

A

tonic signaling

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79
Q

depolarization of a neuron results in________- to open presynaptic terminal

A

voltage gate Ca2+

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80
Q

NTS travels across the cleft and either 1. binds to a receptor on the postsynaptic membrane and is broken down by enzymes or 3 taken up back into presynaptic cell _____

A

reuptake

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81
Q

-ionotropic/fast
-NT binds
–causes conformational change
-affects channel permeability
-“gates” or opens the channel

A

ligand-gated ion channels

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82
Q

-metabotropic/slow
-NTs binds to GCPR
-activates coupled G-protein
—exchanging GDP –> GTP
-indirectly gates channel via 2nd messenger signaling
— g-protein activation –> adenylate cyclase (AC) – converts ATP into cAMP as 2nd messenger
-slow but can have long-lasting modulatory effect
-DREADDS are GCPRs

A

G-protein-coupled receptors (GCPRs)

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83
Q

-synthesized within presynaptic neuron
-stored in synaptic vesicles (presynaptic terminals)
-released mediated primarily by Ca2+
-postsynaptic neuron contains specialized receptors for them to bind
-when applied to a cell, leads to postsynaptic potential

A

NTs

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84
Q

-Brain + spinal cord
-4 interconnected ventricles – also contain CSF

A

CNS

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85
Q

the walls of ____ contains a system of specialized cells and capillaries, the choroid plexus which produces CSF from blood plasma

*CONTAINS CSF FLUID

A

ventricles

86
Q

protective membranes in CNS

A

meninges

87
Q

what are the different maters in the brain

A

-outer brain
-middle arachnoid mater
-inner delicate pia mater (adheres to surface of brain) (thinnest layer)

*ALL ARE IMPORTANT FOR LUBRICATION OF THE BRAIN

88
Q

the subarachnoid space in this mater is filled with cerebral fluid

A

middle arachnoid mater

89
Q

bunch of cell bodies and their connections
-functional population

A

nuclei

90
Q

neuronal cell bodies (what kind of matter contains this)

A

grey matter

91
Q

axons organized into tracts or niches that cross the hemispheric projections

-main ex. is corpus callous

A

commissures

92
Q

what are the benefits of the gyri

A

-increase S.A –> increase cells, increase processing, things can be close together

93
Q

-consciousness
-sleep/wake
-breathing

A

brainstem, medulla, pons, cerebellum, & midbrain

94
Q

-houses cranial nerve
-synapse in pons
-respiration, heart rate, arousal

A

medulla

95
Q

-connections between brain and cerebellum
-cranial nerves synapse here
-sensory info passes through here
-houses part of the reticular formation
—important for modulating pain, arousal, and cardiovascular control
*GENERATES REM SLEEP

A

Pons

96
Q

-contains 2/3 of neurons in the Brain
-vestibular functions: balance and posture
-integrates info with motor systems –> coordination
-auditory and visual inputs from brainstem
-higher order function ex. mental imagery, attention, & language

A

cerebellum

97
Q

balance and posture

A

vestibular function

98
Q

-contains periaqueductal gray (PAG)
-important for responding to threat; modulates pain, fear, & anxiety

-also contains superior and inferior colliculi

A

midbrain

99
Q

perceiving objects in the periphery and orienting our gaze directly toward them, bringing them into sharper view

A

superior coliculus

100
Q

locating and orienting towards auditory stimuli

A

inferior colliculus

101
Q

-information relay station
-above brainstem
-fornix & corpus callosum above the thalamus
-all sensory info (*EXCEPT OLFACTORY) relay in the thalamus before heading to primary cortical sensory areas
-receives reciprocal projection form these areas

*smell not part of this and foes straight to limbic system

A

thalamus

102
Q

what is the pathway for the retina

A

lateral geniculate nucleus –> primary visual cortex

103
Q

what is the pathway for the inner ear

A

medial geniculate –> primary auditory cortex

104
Q

what is the pathway for the somatosensory system

A

ventral posterior medial and lateral nuclei –> primary somatosensory cortex

105
Q

-floor of the 3rd ventricle
-main link btw nervous system and endocrine system
-hormone synthesis and control
—-circadian rhythms, maintaining homeostasis (temp, electrolytes), stress, anxiety, fear, sex drive, thirst, and hunger
-pituitary gland

A

hypothalamus

106
Q

anterior posterior pituitary
-produces hormones –> blood circulation, influence many behaviors

A

pituitary gland

107
Q

-cingulate gyrus
-hypothalamus
-anterior thalamus
-hippocampus
-mammillary body

(CHHAM)

A

classical limbic lobe (Thomas Willis)

108
Q

emotion

A

James Papez

109
Q

-amygdala
-orbitofrontal cortex
-basal ganglia

A

Paul McLean

110
Q

what are the functions of the limbic system

A

-memory (association and time), emotion, social information, motivational states
-most capable of plasticity
-smell and taste
-pain
-linking info
*limbic structure more flexible + plastic contrasted with cortical structures that are less emotional

111
Q

what are the different structures that are part of the basal ganglia

A

-caudate nucleus + putamen * part of the striatum
-globus pallidus
-substantia nigra
-subthalamic nucleus

112
Q

what is the basal ganglia function

A

-inputs from sensory and motor areas
-feedback from thalamus
-goal directed behavior
-reward-based learning (reward assessment, prediction, absence, etc.)
-largely dopaminergic circuit
-integrate goals and actions

113
Q

what does the folding (sulci – crevices) and gyri (crowns) do in the cerebral cortex?

— what are the functions

A

-folded to increase surface area
-to bring structures closer together
-high density of cell bodies (appears gray)
-underside of brain appears paler because of axons

114
Q

What does cognitive control consist of

A

-working memory
-response inhibition
-relational reasoning

*executive function

115
Q

what happens during childhood and adolescence

A
  1. brain maturation
  2. cognitive and emotional advancement
116
Q

-during adolescent, social and affective really impact decision making
-predicts success
-puberty + hormones –> affect bodily characteristics and social affective sensitivities
-increase risk-taking
-greater sensitivity to peer group influence

*mostly adaptive: stimulates learning and contributes to mature social functioning
– can also be maladaptive (ex. drug abuse + suicide)

A

affective decision making

117
Q

what is working memory

A

holding memory in the brain and using pre-frontal cortex

ex. count backwards

118
Q

in a WM task, adults show more activation in the __________ and ______ compared to children

A

lateral prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex

119
Q

in WM, age is also associated with lower activation in the _______ and _____

A

medial prefrontal and temporal cortex

120
Q

what regions are important for WM

A

frontal and parietal regions

121
Q

what kind of tasks are in WM

A

spatial, verbal, and visual

122
Q

what is response inhibition

A

-ability to inhibit inappropriate responses
-Go-No-Go task
*right interior frontal gyrus – important for inhibitory response
*greater activation in adults compared to children
-hard for children

123
Q

what region is important for inhibitory control

A

right inferior frontal gyrus

124
Q

what is cognitive control

A

-relational reasoning
-integrating information to find new solutions, consider relationships between multiple mental representations
*relies on anterior PFC
-Raven’s progressive Matrices task
—sustained activation in adults but not other children

*when you see it you can’t unsee it

125
Q

adolescents have higher sensitivity to both ___ and ___

A

risk and reward

126
Q

value of reward involves what brain regions

A

-ventromedial PFC
-PCC
-ventral striatum (dopamine)

127
Q

level of risk involves what brain regions

A

-insula (involved in processing disgust)
-dorosomedial PFC

128
Q

what Brain regions is linked to risky behavior

A

functional coupling of the striatum and the OFC

129
Q

what brain region is involved in delayed reward

A

lateral PFC

130
Q

what brain region is involved in immediate reward

A

ventral striatum

-in adults ventromedial PFC more active compared to adolescents for immediate rewards

131
Q

what social cognition and social brain development occurs in adolescence

A

-physical, social, behavioral and cognitive changes
-form more complex and hierarchical peer relationships
-more sensitive to peer acceptance

132
Q

what does face processing do and function for

A

-identity, emotional expression, direction, of eye gaze, communicative signals
-with age, increased functional connectivity btw the fusiform gyrus (identity) & the superior temporal sulcus (STS) (emotional context)

133
Q

function of fusiform gyrus

A

identity + face processing

134
Q

function of superior temporal sulcus (STS)

A

emotional context

135
Q

what is mentalizing

A

-understaning the mental state of others
-understanding that others hold different belief systems, intentions, thoughts, and feelings than you
-temporoparitenal junction (TPJ), superior temporal sulcus (STS), and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC)
-with age, you see less activation of dmPFC

136
Q

what regions of the brain are involved in mentalizing

A

-temporoparitenal junction (TPJ), superior temporal sulcus (STS), and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC)

137
Q

refers to the ability to make sense of of the world through processing signals generated by other members of the same species and encompasses a wide range of cognitive processes that enable individuals to understand and interact with one another

A

social cognition

138
Q

refers to the interaction between our emotions and out behavior in the context of communication with others

A

social affect

139
Q

ability to change structurally (anatomically) in response to a mismatch btw capacity (supply) and environmental (demand)

A

plasticity

140
Q

what is the relationship btw plasticity and flexibility

A

flexibility = functional capacity (based on existing functional supply)
-using what you have to adapt

141
Q

early plasticity linked to ____

A

vulnerability

142
Q

synatogeneis tend to happen ___ in life

A

early

143
Q

when does myelination occur

A

in the beginning

144
Q

when does neural substrate appear highest

A

when flexibility is lowest in ontogenesis

145
Q

what is neurogenesis

A

-the birth of new neurons
-different in rodents
-in adults, neurogenesis occurs at low levels in development and in 3 region of the brain: SVZ, lateral ventricles (migrate to olfactory bulb),amygdala, dentate gyrus of hippocampus
-when neurons are born they migrate to the paces in the Brian where they will reside, largely during fetal life
-neuronal differentiation is defined early, by place and time the neuron is born

146
Q

what is neuronal loss

A

-apoptosis –> genetically determined
-humans don’t lose a great proportion of neurons with age, however there is neuronal shrinkage + average neocortical neuron losses of 2-4% from early to late life

147
Q

Describe synaptogenesis

A

-starts in fetal stages, the peak number of synapses in the human brain is reached postnatally, and synaptic changes also seen in adulthood
— though development, there is considerable pruning or elimination of synapses

148
Q

describe myelination

A

-insulation of neurons by glial cells while beginning in fetal life, taking place after birth an continuing into adulthood
-considerable loss of myelinated fibers in normal aging
-severe loss of myelin in multiple sclerosis

149
Q

what does prenatal factors affect

A

-brain development despite rapid postnatal neural growth

150
Q

postnatal environment also highly influential on ___

A

development
-period of heightened plasticity
-ex. sensory deprivation

151
Q

what is critical period

A

specific window within Brian which is sensitive to environmental stimuli and must encounter that type of stimulus to develop optimally (ex. visual stimuli)

-think Genie

152
Q

running increases ___

A

neurogenesis

153
Q

what happens during postpartum period

A

-decreased neurogenesis (also in fathered because they show similar glucocorticoid profile
-increased glucocorticoids (tied to lactation in mothers and tied to contact with infant and mothers + fathers)
-in father’s there are more dendritic spines in prefrontal cortex

154
Q

effects during postpartum period

A

-increased spine density
-decreased anxiety
-increased spatial processing abilities)

155
Q

site of dendritic synapse
-increase in enriched environment + learning + exercise & decease in in stress

A

dendritic spine

156
Q

increase oxytocin during sexual experience

A

dentate gyrus

157
Q

what did Ramon Y Cajal discover

A

-parenting
-adult brain is more structurally stable
-Brain changes when needed

158
Q

connection with retrospenial cortex, visual cortex, gene similarities with connected regions
-posterior in primates
-spatial navigation learning
-trace conditioning
-more innhibition
-more place cells

A

dorsal hippocampus

159
Q

-direct connection with mPFC, more connections with amygdala
-gene expression similarities w/ connected regions
-anxiety regulation
-feedback of stress response
-decreased seizure threshold

A

ventral hippocampus (anterior in primates)

160
Q

glucocorticoids functions

A

-activated & elevated during stress

Negative stress:
-decrease neurogenesis rate
-decrease dendritic complexity
-decrease synapses –> impair cognition + increased anxiety
-decreased memory and learning

Postive Stress:
increase glucocorticoids
-increase neuronal growth
-decreased anxiety
-increased learning and memory

161
Q

-using light (photo stimulation) to control the activity of neurons that have been genetically modified to respond to light

-neurons are genetically modified using different types of viruses –> resulting in light sensitive opsin to be inserted into the cell

*can be done in transgenic or wild type animals

A

optogenetics

162
Q

-viruses are used to transfect neurons with light sensitive proteins called ___

-these proteins were originally discovered in algae and bacteria

-these proteins respond to different wavelengths of light

-microbial ___ can be either excitatory or inhibitory

A

opsin

163
Q

-shine blue lights on the cells that express ___, those cells will “turn on” or depolarize

-____ is an inotropic (fast)) ion channel that allows sodium to enter the cell producing an action potential

A

ChR2

164
Q

sine green light ton cells that express ____ so that those cells will be inherited to hyper polarized

-____ is an ion-channel that allows chloride to enter the cell, inhibiting action potentials

A

ArchT3.0

165
Q

light on cells that express ____ so that those cells will be inherited to hyper polarized

A

eNpHR3.0

166
Q

how does optogenetics work?

A
  1. blue light activates “on” opsin called channelrhodopsin
  2. positively charged ions enter the neuron through channelrhodopsin resulting in firing of the neuron
  3. NTs released
  4. yellow light activated “off” opsin called haldorhodopson
  5. negatively charged ions enter the neuron though halrohodopsin stopping the neuron from firing
  6. the neuron doesn’t fire

*shining light happens through an implantation with an optic fiber that delivers light via laser beam

167
Q

often opsin are fused to fluorescent reporter like ___ or ____

A

GFP – green fluorescent protein

RFP – red fluorescent protein

168
Q

using the fluorescent proteins, you can visualize their location using ____ or _____

A

immunohistochemistry and fluorescence microscopy

169
Q

describe the Tet-on, Tet-off system

A

-inducible and activity dependent system that you can control which cells you turn on and off
-system is inducible because controlled by TERACYCLINE
-when tetracycline is not present, this means that tTA can bind to TRE and u get the expression of the light sensitive opsins like ChR2 and the fused fluorescent resorted GFP
-when tetracycline is present, this blocks tTA from binding to TRE and nothing is expressed

*system is activity dependent because entire sequence is driven by c-Fos promoter gene and any cell that expresses this gene also expresses ChR2 and GFP (as long as no tetracycline present)

170
Q

optogenetics provides ____ timescale precision

A

millisecond

171
Q

optogenetics informs how the brain _____ when a certain pathway or subset of cells is not ______

A

compensates; assessible

172
Q

what can be used to compare light off and on epochs in optogentics

A

within subject designs

173
Q

true or false, optogenetics is an exact recapitulation of what happens in the Brain naturally

A

FALSE, it is NOT

174
Q

what is the most significant factor diminishing light penetration in biological tissues

A

scattering

-wavelength-dependent – shorter wavelengths scatter more
-tissue penetration is less with blue light in comparison to red light and NIR
-light scattering arrives differently in different brain structures

*main determining factor is the DENSITY OF CELLS IN THE AREA, as cells nuclei scatter light more than axons and dendrites

175
Q

what is the impact of optogenetics

A

-understanding how specific cell types contribute to the function of biological tissues
-identified many neural circuits in vivo important
-led to a variety of clinical insights (ex. anxiety, retinal disorders, memory impairments, Parkinson’s disease etc.)

176
Q

describe the chemo genetics: DREAADs

A

-designer receptors exclusively activated by Designer drugs
-proteins engineered (GPCRs in the case of DREADDS) to interact with previously unrecognized (by the body), biologically inert, small, molecule chemical actuators (drugs)

-sustained activation (slower than optogenetics)

177
Q

what does in vivo electrophysiology do

A

-record neural activity with spike timed precision but they cannot localize the activity of large populations of individual cells or identify cell types
*MEASURE APs (spike trains)

178
Q

what does in vivo Ca2+ imaging do

A

enables visualization of activity of hundreds of neurons simultaneously using fluorescent activity sensors

-GCaMP – green fluorescent genetically encoded by calcium indicator (GECI)
—-it contains a CaM residue that binds the calcium
—-conformational change when calcium bound (doesn’t fluorescent when unbound)

-changes in fluorescence indicate fluctuations in the intracellular Ca2+, which is a indirect indicator of neural activity
-single cell resolution

179
Q

describe fiber photometry

A

-can measure changes in NTs
—- grab sensors
-indicator is excited by a light source and in turn emits its own light
-when indicator is bound to a ligand, it emotes more light than when unbound
*the recored result is a trace of RELATIVE FLUORESCENE sensitive to the amount of ligand present for your indicator which increases in a way that correlates with action potentials in target neurons

180
Q

what methods change the neural function

A

-optogenetics
-chemogenetics
-pharmacology
-genetic manipulations
-DBS
-TMS

181
Q

what methods to measure neural activity

A

-in vivo calcium imaging
-fiber photometry
-electrophysiology
-EEG/ERP
-fMRI
-connectivity maps/Tissue clearing
-TMS

182
Q

rhythmic and or repetitive electrical activity generated spontaneously and in response and to stimuli by neural tissue in the central nervous system
-enables and synchronization of neural activity within and across brain regions
-promotes the precise temporal coordination of neural processes and underlying cognition, memory, perception, and behavior

A

brain oscillations (waves)

183
Q

-the measurement of electrical activity in different parts of the brain and the recording of such activity as a visual trace
-used as a diagnostic tool to detect epilepsy
-also used to study cognition across development as it is relatively non-invasive

A

electroencephalography (EEG)

184
Q

what happens in P300

A

attend to a stimulus

185
Q

what happens in N200

A

unexpected stimulus

186
Q

N100 & P100

A

selective attention

187
Q

50-100 ms

A

sensory

188
Q

attentional states can modulate ___

A

ERPS

189
Q

discovered that blood flow was directly related to brain function

A

Seymour Kety

190
Q

-radioactive tracers injected into the blood
-more active areas have higher metabolic demand – receive more tracer
-decay over time allowing for metabolic inference via positron emissions
-positron colliding with electrons forms detectable gamma rays
-results reported as a change in regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF)

A

positron emission tomography (PET)

191
Q

delay in reaction time between congruent and incongruent stimuli

A

stroop effect

192
Q

brain damage is a _____ significance

A

clinical

193
Q

what are examples of brain damage

A

-stroke
-aneurism
-tumors
-degenerative disorders
-viral & bacterial disorders
-traumatic brain injury (TBI)–> edema, epilepsy, and lesions

194
Q

2 hemispheres are surgically severed (split brain patients)

A

callostomy

195
Q

-callostomy
-removing a connection or a part of the Brian and seeing an impairment doesn’t always meant that part of the brain is involve in that process – important to include proper controls
-also imaging such as fMRI can help see what brain region missing or damaged

A

lesions

196
Q

how does scary experiences change how people process new info

A

more sensitive to other negative life experiences

197
Q

what brain regions are involved in fear

A

-amygdala
-hippocampus
-frontal + posterior regions

198
Q

-noninvasive method for mapping the brain
-high resolution with good contrast between different tissues
*BOLD SIGNALING – areas of the brain that are more active tend to receive higher levels of oxygenated blood

A

fMRI

199
Q

-nucleus of a hydrogen atom behaves like a small magnet
-NMR
-when you lay in the strong magnetic field of an MRI system all the HYDROGEN PROTONS in your body (most of which are in water) ALIGN WITH THAT MAGNETIC FIELD

A

MRI

200
Q

when neural activity increases, MR signal also increases by ____

A

1%

201
Q

fMRI limitations

A

-expensive
-person must be completely still
-cannot be used with patients who have metallic devices
-small sample sizes – lots of variability
-high levels of false positives
-lack of independent replication of experiments
-poor temporal resolution
-huge data sets

202
Q

-microelectrode
-manipulations –> changes in firing and signaling dynamics
-rate of change in voltage
-raster pot

A

single cell recording (patch clamps)

203
Q

-probe positioned in the extracellular space
-oscillation (like EEG)
-recording from multiple neurons
-available in many recording configurations, ranging from single-electrode recordings to multi-electrode arrays

A

local field potentials (LFPs)

204
Q

similar to electrophysiology but for NTs

A

fast scan cyclic voltammeter (FSCV)

205
Q

capture correlated pattens of activity between brain regions
—- brain regions do not work in isolation
-the connectome
-network
—– structural or functional imaging data

A

connectivity maps

206
Q

what tis the 4 step process connectivity maps

A

-divide data into define anatomical nodes
-calculate correlations between nodes
-visually display this analysis with an association matrix
-create a connectivity map – color and geometrically code

207
Q

-method to make tissue transparent
–using acrylamide -based hydrogels
–combined with other methods such as expansion microscopy (ExM)

A

tissue cleaning technique: clarity

208
Q

-lipid content is removed, proteins and nucleic acids remain intact
-requires a transparent scaffolding (made of acrylamide)
-stabilized with formaldehydes

A

post-mortem tissue

209
Q

-contrast for imaging
-confocal, sheet, 2P microscopy can detect ____

A

immunostaining

Fluorescence

210
Q

describe Deep brain stimulation (DBS)

A

-invasive procedure
-electrodes are implanted to modulate neuronal activity
-exact mechanism is not full understood
-successful results for Parkinson’s
-implication for other disorders

211
Q

-capacitor send electric current to coil – which generates a magnetic field

-magnetitic field propagates through the layers of scalp and skull altering the electrical activity (oscillations) of cortical neurons
-with a modest level of stimulation, the neurons fire
-new technology being developed to reach deeper structures

A

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

212
Q

term coined by Eric L Schwartz

A

computational neuroscience

Neuro (9 decks)

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