Boot Camp Day 1.1 Flashcards
1
Q
What is the body’s structural hierachy? (from most basic to most complex)
A
2
Q
- What is the system level?
- How many systems are there in the human body + name them?
A
- A system consists of related organs with a common function
- 11 systems of the human body (DR. IRN MUSCLE)
3
Q
What is organ system interrelationships?
A
Cells and organs work cooperatively in the
body to maintain well being
4
Q
Note how different systems have an internal and external environment
A
5
Q
What is homeostasis and what are some similar words?
A
- Maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment despite continuous outside changes
- A dynamic state of equilibrium-> bringing back to the set point (ex. temp is 37C stays even though temp outside changes)
- Balance, constant internal environment, equilibrium and stable conditions
6
Q
- What does homeostatic control mechanisms involve?
- What does the nervous and endocrine system accomplish?
- Control mechanisms involve what and what feedback?
A
- Involve continuous monitoring and regulation of many factors
- Nervous (fast) and Endocrine (longer term/time) systems accomplish the communication via nerve impulses and hormones
- Control mechanism involves several parts and makes use of negative feedback-> communicate and move back
7
Q
Explain the components of a control mechanism (receptor, control center and effector
A
.
8
Q
What is a negative feedback and what are examples?
A
The response reverses the original stimulus
* Regulation of body temperature (nervous mechanism)->Action potentions that send signals (sweat +shivering)
* Regulation of blood pressure (nervous mechanism) -> effector: smooth muscle
* Regulation of blood sugar (hormonal mechanism)-> effectors are insulin and glucogon
9
Q
The term negative does not indicate what?
A
The term “negative” does not indicate a “bad or detrimental” effect, nor does it indicate that a change will always cause a decrease in a variable
10
Q
Explain how negative feedback works in thermoregulation?
A
11
Q
Explain negative feedback with the receptors, control center and effectors with cold and hot temperature
A
.
12
Q
Explain the negative feedback with standing up and BP?
A
13
Q
What is positive feedback?
A
Self-amplifying cycle:
* Leads to greater change in the same direction
* Feedback loop is repeated — change produces more change
14
Q
What are some examples of postivie feedback?
A
Normal way of producing rapid changes
* Examples include: childbirth, blood clotting, protein digestion, and generation of nerve signals
15
Q
Is positive feedback always a good things?
A
Can sometimes be dangerous
– Example: vicious circle of runaway fever
16
Q
What does the term positive indicate
A
The term “positive” does not indicate that a change will always cause an increase in a variable
17
Q
Explain the feedback mechanism in childbirth
A
18
Q
For the movements of synovial joins, what are the angular movements (Sagittal)?
A
- Flexion
- Extension
- Hyperextension-> can lead to damage
1 and 2 opposite actions
19
Q
For the movements of synovial joints, what are the angular movements (frontal)?
A
i. Adduction: towards
ii. Abduction: away
iii. Circumduction: 360 degrees
iv. Rotation: turn but not 360 degrees
i and ii are opposite actions
20
Q
For synovial joint movements what are the special movements?
A
21
Q
What are gliding movements? What is an example?
A
One bone surface glides or slips over another similar surface
* Example: carpal bones
22
Q
Explain all the movements that occur along the sagital plane
A
i. Flexion — decreases the angle of the joint
ii. Extension — increases the angle of the joint
iii. Hyperextension — excessive extension beyond normal range of motion
23
Q
A
Angular movements: flexion, extension, and hyperextension of the neck
24
Q
A
Angular movements: flexion, extension, and hyperextension of the vertebral column
25
Angular movements: flexion and extension at the shoulder and knee
26
Explain the movements that occur along the frontal plane
i. Abduction — movement **away** from the midline
ii. Adduction — movement **toward** the midline
iii. Circumduction — flexion + abduction + extension + adduction of a limb so as to describe a cone in space – **360 degrees possible**
iv. Rotation — turning of a bone around its own long axis – **360 degrees not possible**
27
Angular movements: abduction, adduction, and circumduction of the upper limb at the shoulder
28
Rotation of the head, neck, and lower limb
28
Explain the special movements of (radius and ulna)
i. **Supination** (turning hand backward)
ii. **Pronation** (turning hand forward)
* Because radius turn over ulna
29
What are the special movements of the foot?
iii. Dorsiflexion (upward movement)
iv. Plantar flexion (downward movement)
30
What are two other special movements of the foot?
v. Inversion (turn sole medially) -> roll ankle
vi. Eversion (turn sole laterally)
30
What are the special movements in transverse plane?
vii. Protraction (anterior movement) viii.Retraction (posterior movement)
31
What are special movements that involve shoulders?
ix. Elevation (lifting a body part superiorly)
x. Depression (moving a body part inferiorly)
32
What is the special movement of the thumb?
Opposition of the thumb
– Movement in the saddle joint so that the thumb touches the tips of the other fingers
33
How many elements have a biological role? Which ones are major elements of the human body?
* 24 elements have biological role
* O, C, H, N, Ca, P make up about **98.5%** of body mass
34
What are minerals?
Inorganic elements extracted from soil by plants and passed up food chain to humans:
– Ca, P, Cl, Mg, K, Na, and S
– Constitute about 4% of body weight
– Important for body structure (Ca crystals in teeth, bones, etc.)
– Important for enzymes’ functions
– Electrolytes
* mineral salts (e.g NaCl)needed for nerve and muscle function
35
What is the atomic structure? When is an element more reactive?
Close to being an octet is more reactive
36
What are electroyltes?
– substances that ionize (form ions) in water and form solutions
capable of conducting electric current
37
What is the importance of electrolytes?
– Chemical reactivity, osmotic effects, electrical excitability of
nerve and muscle
– Electrolyte balance is one of the most important considerations in patient care (imbalances can lead to coma or cardiac arrest)
38
Electrons occupy up to _ electron shells (energy levels) around nucleus
seven
39
What is the octet rule?
Except for the first shell which is full with two electrons, atoms interact in a manner to have eight electrons in their outermost energy level (valence shell)
40
What are single covalent bonds?
41
What are double covalent bonds?
42
What are ionic bonds and what happens after a transfer?
* Ions are formed by **transfer** of valence shell electrons between atoms
* **Ion**: atom with unequal number of protons to electrons so it can be a **cation (+) or anion (-)**
43
What results in an ionic bond?
attraction of opposite charges
44
What is the order of strongest to weakest bonds?
45
What are nonpolar and polar bonds?
* **Nonpolar bond**: electrons shared equally (strongest bond)
* **Polar bond**: electrons shared unequally (spend more time near oxygen)
46
What are hydrogen bonds?
a weak attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen atom (electropositive) in one molecule and a slightly negative (electronegative) oxygen or nitrogen atom in another
47
* How are water molcules attracted to each other?
* DNA and proteins are shaped by what?
– Water molecules are attracted to each other by hydrogen bonds
– Large molecules (DNA and proteins) shaped by hydrogen bonds within them-> temp and pH changes can denature them
48
Why can a bug sit on the water?
A water strider can walk on a pond because of the high surface tension of water, a result of the combined strength of its hydrogen bonds
49
What are the different chemical reactions and what happens to the energy in each?
50
What are reversible reactions and what is an example (why it is important)
e.g.
– Can go in either direction under different circumstances
– Symbolized with double-headed arrow
EX: CO2 +H2O↔H2CO3↔H+ +HCO3-
* An important reaction in respiratory, urinary, digestive physiology (basic: increase in CO2, acidic: decrease in CO2)
51
What is the law of mass action?
Direction of reaction determined by the relative abundance of substances on either side of the equation
* More abundant substances serve as reactants
Reach **equilibrium** when ratio of products to reactants is stable
52
What is metabolism?
all chemical reactions of the body
53
What is catabolism and anabolism?
54
How is catabolism and anabolism linked?
Catabolism and anabolism are inseparably linked
– Anabolism is driven by energy released by catabolism
55
What is solvency?
ability to dissolve other chemicals
56
What is called the universal solvent?
water
57
What are hydrophillic and hydrophobic substances?
58
What do metabolic reactions depend on?
solvency of water
59
What is the dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis reaction?
60
* What is a solution? What is an example?
* What is osmolarity?
* Solution = Solute + Solvent-> e.g. Saline = NaCl + Water
* **Osmolarity**: A measure of the [solute] of a solution
61
What is pH?
pH = the negative logarithm of [H+] in moles/liter
* pH = -log [H+]
62
What are neutral solutions?
– Pure water is pH neutral (contains equal numbers of H+ and OH–)
–pH of pure water=pH 7: [H+]=10–7 M
– All neutral solutions are pH 7
63
How does the pH scale work?
64
A change of one number on the pH scale represents a _ change in H concentration
10-fold
– A solution with pH of 4.0 is 10 times as acidic as
one with pH of 5.
65
* pH change interferes with what?
* Slight change in pH can be what?
* pH is regulated by what?
* pH change interferes with cell function and may damage living tissue
* **Slight change** in pH can be fatal
* pH is regulated by kidneys, lungs, and buffers
66
What are buffers?
– chemical solutions that resist changes in pH
– Maintaining normal (slightly basic) pH of blood is crucial for physiological functions
67
What are epithelial cells, skeletal muscle cells+ smooth muscle cells, fat cells, macrophages, nerve cells and sperm?
68
What is the basic cell structure?
69
What are the different components of the plasma membrane?
70
What are some of the functions of the membrane proteins?
71
Explain hydrophilic/phobic and lipidphonic/phillic relationship?
* Hydrophobic-> lipophilic: can go across membrane but cannot travel in blood freely
* Hydrophillic-> lipophobic: cannot go across membrane by self
72
Explain how the second messenger system works?
73
What are the three types of membrane junctions?
Three types:
1. Tight junction
2. Desmosome
3. Gap junction
74
What are tight junctions?
Prevent fluids and most molecules from moving between cells
## Footnote
example: epitheal cells
75
What are desmosomes?
“Rivets” that anchor cells together
76
What are gap junctions what do they allow?
* Transmembrane proteins form **pores** that allow small molecules to pass from cell to cell
* Plasma membranes of adjacent cells
* Allows spread of ions between cardiac or smooth muscle cells
77
What are microvilli? what is the importance? Can appear as what?
* Gives 15 to 40 times more surface area Best developed in cells specialized in absorption
* On some absorptive cells very dense
* Appear as a fringe “brush border”
78
Some microvilli contain what?
actin filaments that are tugged toward center of cell to
milk absorbed contents into cell
79
What is cilia and the two types?
80
Plasma membranes are _ _
Plasma membranes are **selectively permeable**
* Some molecules easily pass through the membrane; others do not
* Different molecules move in/out of a cell by different transport mechanisms!
81
What is filtration?
Filtration: particles are driven through membrane by physical pressure (rather than due to a chemical concentration gradient)
82
What is passive processes and active processes?
83
What are the different types of passive and active processes?
84
What is simple diffusion?
Simple diffusion of fat-soluble molecules directly through the phospholipid bilayer
85
What is facilitated diffusion?
86
What is osmosis?
* The movement of water from a area of high water concentration to an area of lower water concentration.
87
What is the better way to think about osmosis?
**water follows the solutes**
* Wherever the solute (usually sodium) goes, water follows!
* Water concentration is determined by solute concentration
88
* What is osmolarity?
* What does the body fluids contain?
* How many milliomoles per liter in blood plasma, tissue fluid and intracellular fluid?
The measure of total concentration of **solute particles**
* number of osmoles per liter of solution
- body fluids contain a mix of many chemicals and osmolarity is the total osmotic concentration of all solutes
- Blood plasma, tissue fluids, and intrcellular fluids are 300 milliosmoles per liter (mOsm/L)
89
When solutions of different osmolarity are separated by a membrane, osmosis occurs until _ is reached
equilibrium
90
* one osmole (osm)=
* Takes into account what?
* 1M glucose is _
* 1M NaCl is _
* one osmole (osm)= 1 mole of dissolved particles
* Takes into account whether solute ionizes in water
* 1M glucose is 1 osm/L
* 1M NaCl is 2 osm/L
91
What are the two types of active transport?
1. Primary
2. Secondary
92
What is active processes? Examples?
* Both use ATP to move solutes across a plasma membrane
* Examples: ions, some sugars and amino acids
* Active transport requires carrier proteins (solute **pumps**)
* Active transport moves solutes against a concentration gradient
93
* What does vesicular transport move?
* What is a vesicle?
* What does it utilize?
– moves large particles, fluid droplets, or numerous molecules at once through the membrane in vesicles
– *Vesicles*: bubble-like enclosures of membrane (made of **phospholipids**)
– utilizes motor proteins energized by ATP
94
What is endocytosis?
vesicular processes that bring material into cell
i. Phagocytosis—“cell eating,”
ii. Pinocytosis—“cell drinking,”
iii. Receptor-mediated endocytosis
95
What is exocytosis?
* discharging material out of the cell
96
What does vesicular transport require and what does it involve?
* Requires energy
* Involves small membrane sac
97
What is located between plasma membrane and nucleus?
**Cytosol**
–Water with solutes (protein, salts, sugars, etc.)
**Cytoplasmic organelles**
–Metabolic machinery of cell
**Inclusions**
– Granules of glycogen or pigments, lipid droplets, vacuoles, and crystals
98
What is the cytoskeleton?
99
What is the cytoplasmic organelles? (membranous v nonmembranous)
