Book 1 Shorter, Chapter 2, Set 2

Question 1

What occurred after Egypt’s New Kingdom up until the Saite Dynasty? Why was the Saite Dynasty important? (page 65)

Answer 1

The Third Intermediate Period (c. 1069 - 664 BCE) spanned dynasties 21 to 25 and saw a mixture of foreign control and Egyptian independence. Native pharaohs in Upper Egypt gave way to a period of Libyan control while Lower Egypt split into many separate regions. By the 25th dynasty, at the end of the Third Intermediate Period, Kushite rulers from Nubia, notably Piye (c. 747 - 716 BCE) controlled both Lower and Upper Egypt and thus reunified Egypt. Kushite rule ended with the reigns of Taharqa and Tantamani (c. 690 - 656 BCE). The Assyrians occupied Egypt for a decade at the end of the Third Intermediate Period. Afterwards, there was a brief Egyptian renaissance under the Saite Dynasty.

Question 2

Describe the life and accomplishments of Ramses II. (pages 66 and 67)

Answer 2

The greatest pharaoh of the New Kingdom era (c. 1550 - 1069 BCE), Ramses II was a great military, diplomatic, and imperial leader of Egypt for the 70 years of his reign. He skillfully used diplomacy, propaganda and military strategy to promote his own rule and the prosperity of Egypt. He fought and then eventually made peace with the hostile Hittite Empire in northern Anatolia. This first peace treaty was perhaps the first written treaty and record of international diplomacy. Ramses II was also famed for his monumental constructions, including the new capital at Per-Ramses in the Nile delta, along with giant statues and images of himself. Other constructions include his famous temples to himself and his wife, Neferati, at Abu Simbel, along with four massive statues of himself at Abu Simbel. Another important site was the Ramesseum, his mortuary temple on the west bank of the Nile at Thebes. A palace, religious and political center, and a seat of learning all combined, the Ramasseum would inspire Percy Bysshe Shelley’s poem “Ozymandias”.

Question 3

When was the first pyramid built and which one was it? (page 72)

Answer 3

The Step Pyramid was built c. 2667 - 2648 BCE for pharaoh Djoser of the 3rd Dynasty by the Egyptian genius Imhotep.

Question 4

What is a corvee laborer and why were corvee laborers so important for ancient monumental construction? (page 73)

Answer 4

An unskilled laborer who worked on state architecture for a set amount of time each year either instead of or in addition to paying taxes in the form of food or money. This form of labor was crucial to building monuments like the pyramids of Egypt and the ziggurats of Mesopotamia.

Question 5

When did the first real signs of advanced civilization appear in Mesoamerica? What was this first advanced civilization? (page 74)

Answer 5

The Olmecs emerged between 1500 BCE and 900 BCE. The Olmecs established themselves in the lowlands of south Mexico, and their culture was flourishing by about 1200 BCE.

Question 6

What was the first important center of Olmec culture? Describe this center. (page 74 and 75)

Answer 6

The first important Olmec center was San Lorenzo on a plateau above the Coatzacoalcos River in the southern Mexican state of Veracruz. San Lorenzo was at its height from 1200 to 900 BCE. It was most likely a chiefdom than a city-state, with a hierarchical society. The population may have been around only 1000.

Question 7

What were some of the Olmec’s most famous constructions? (page 74)

Answer 7

The Olmecs were famous for their giant stone heads measuring up to several yards tall and about 20 tons in weight. They also made giant stone carvings of seated figures and depictions of various wild animals, especially the jaguar.

Question 8

What might have caused the downfall of San Lorenzo? (page 74)

Answer 8

Damage to monuments suggests that there might have been uprisings or invasions, while others think that environmental factors may have been the cause of San Lorenzo’s decline.

Question 9

Aside from San Lorenzo, what was the other major center of the Olmec civilization? Describe it. (page 74)

Answer 9

La Venta was another major Olmec site near the border of the modern Tabasco and Veracruz states. It was much more populous than San Lorenzo and thrived from 900 to 400 BCE. La Venta essentially took over as the Olmec’s major center after San Lorenzo’s decline. Characteristic Olmec giant stone heads and jaguar figures were found at La Venta along with temple-ceremonial complexes, including a giant pyramid. The major buildings were all precisely aligned, perhaps indicating ideas about astronomy.

Question 10

Describe Olmec art. (page 74)

Answer 10

Olmec stone carving is especially accomplished, including many small jade figurines. Skilled relief carvings have been found at La Venta, along with other Olmec artifacts. Notably, iron-ore mirrors have been found that were worn around the neck. These mirrors could have started fires and even projected images, so leaders may have used them to demonstrate “special” powers.

Question 11

Describe the Chavin of South America? When did their civilization exist? (page 75)

Answer 11

The Peruvian culture of the Chavin began to develop in the Andes region around 1000 BCE, and then spread along a great strip of the Peruvian coast.

Question 12

What was the major excavated site of the Chavin culture? Describe it. (page 75)

Answer 12

Chavin de Huantar may have been the birthplace of the Chavin culture, but was certainly a very important Chavin site, possibly housing a population of 3,000. At the heart of this settlement was a ceremonial complex made of stone blocks and decorated with impressive relief carving.

Question 13

Describe Chavin art. What was its possible religious significance? (page 75)

Answer 13

Chavin art often shows figures combining both human and animal features. At the center of the Old Temple at Chavin de Huantar is a sculpture showing the great Chavin god, El Lanzon, with a human body, a catlike head, and serpentine hair. Such depictions may be “transformation” images associated with religious ritual, perhaps signifying that priests could transform themselves into deities.

Question 14

Describe the architectural and engineering feats of the Olmecs, Chavin, and other civilizations in their area of the world. (page 75)

Answer 14

Flat terracing had to be built to build the Old Temple at Chavin de Huantar, just as the Olmecs had to reshape the plateau at San Lorenzo, and the later Zapotecs would build Monte Alban on top of an artificially leveled mountain.

Question 15

When is the earliest evidence of Minoan civilization? (page 76)

Answer 15

c. 3000 BCE.

Question 16

What was the Phaistos Disk? (page 76)

Answer 16

The Phaistos Disk is a clay disk imprinted with symbols arranged in a spiral starting from its center. The script is unique and undeciphered, but since it seems to provide an entire set of reusable stamps, it is sometimes argued that it is the first instance of movable type. It is dated from between 1850 to 1350 BCE.

Question 17

Describe the origins of Minoan civilization. (page 76)

Answer 17

Dating back to 6500 BCE, the Neolithic people of Crete probably originated in Asia Minor and reared livestock, grew crops, and made basic pottery. During the 3rd millennium BCE, Cretan trading towns on the coast expanded.

Question 18

During what times did the Minoan civilization flourish? (page 76)

Answer 18

c. 3000 to 1400 BCE, peaking around 1600 BCE.

Question 19

What was the name of the Minoan written language? (page 76)

Answer 19

It is known as Linear A and is not fully decoded.

Question 20

What was the main method that the Minoans acquired goods? (page 76)

Answer 20

The Minoans had limited space on the island of Crete, so trade across the Mediterranean was vital. The Minoans are credited with having the first real “navy”, although they probably used it for trade rather than warfare. The Minoans became skilled seafarers, giving them influence and trading partners across the Mediterranean.

Question 21

Describe Minoan political life and their main form of government. (pages 76 and 77)

Answer 21

The Minoans lived in urban settlements dominated by palaces that served as the houses of the rulers but also as religious, political, cultural, and trading centers. Many believe that the various cities were city-states like in later Greece.

Question 22

What was the importance of crafts to the Minoan civilization? (page 77)

Answer 22

The Minoans are famed for their gold jewelry and for their distinctive pottery. Evidence shows that a large portion of the people were craftspeople, meaning that they would have been wealthy compared to other people from their period of history.

Question 23

What is significant about Minoan women? (page 77)

Answer 23

Minoan women played a much more important role in society than women in most other societies of the time. The gods were all women, and the most famous is the often-depicted “Snake Goddess”. Women had equal access to all of the occupations, including sometimes being the “bull-leapers” that are depicted on Minoan art. There is even evidence that Minoan society was matrilineal.

Question 24

Describe the decline of the Minoan civilization. (page 77)

Answer 24

The Minoans began to decline around 1500 BCE, but their complete decline took hundreds of years. The Thera eruption in 1600 BCE may have wiped out the Minoan fleet, possibly making Crete more susceptible to outside powers and influence, as well as destroying trade networks, causing “ripple-effect” damage throughout the region. By 1500 BCE, the Mycenaeans, a late Bronze Age people from mainland Greece, had arrived on Crete. By 1400 BCE, the Mycenaeans controlled Crete and the Aegean. Their takeover may have been aided by an earthquake sometime in the 1400s, which partially destroyed some Minoan cities. A joint Minoan-Mycenaean culture thrived for a while until 1200 BCE, when the Greek Dorian people moved in. The increasing usage of iron instead of the Minoans’ bronze may have quickened their decline.

Question 25

What factor enforced peace between the people of the Middle East’s Late Bronze Age? (page 79)

Answer 25

The major kingdoms of the Late Bronze Age did fight each other on their borders, but did not attempt to conquer each other’s core territories from c. 1600 to 1200 BCE. A need to acquire copper and tin was key to this peace. Copper was common, but the only source of tin at the time was in distant Afghanistan, so the countries had a great incentive to establish diplomatic and trading links to ensure the flow of bronze.

Question 26

What happened during the collapse of the Late Bronze Age civilizations? (page 79)

Answer 26

Between 1200 and 1050 BCE, the records of the various powers describe a period of great uncertainty and upheaval. Then they fall silent, indicating a dark age. Around 1200 BCE, Mycenaeans citadels in Greece were destroyed by northern invaders. Mycenaeans dispossessed by this invasion seem to have migrated outward in search of new lands. This seems to have been the origin of the story of Troy. After this, the records of the major powers describe a time of mass migration, disruption, and destruction. Around 1180 BCE, the Hittite Empire in Anatolia abruptly disappeared. Most likely, displaced Mycenaeans drew forces away from the Hittite capital at Hattusa, which was then destroyed by northern tribes of Anatolia, leaving the rest of the empire to fragment. The Egyptians constantly describe fighting off invasions by “the Sea People”, who the Egyptians blamed for the fall of the Hittite Empire. In reality, these invaders seem to have links to former Hittite lands, so they were probably displaced Hittites. New Kingdom Egypt declined and eventually fragmented in 1069 BCE. Meanwhile, Babylon’s wars with Assyria and Elam resulted in Babylon’s Kassite dynasty dissolving in 1154 BCE and Elam disappearing from the records again a few decades later when its capital, Susa, was sacked. Assyria also fell silent by 1050 BCE for over a century. The last few Assyrian records speak of endless border skirmishes with the “Aramaeans” and “Mushki”.

Question 27

Describe the origins of the Neo-Assyrians of the 14th century BCE. (page 80)

Answer 27

The Assyrian Empire’s roots began c. 2000 to 1800 BCE when Shamshi-Adad I created a kingdom including the great trading city of Ashur, formerly an independent city-state, in northern Mesopotamia. By 1400 BCE, the Assyrians were vassals of the powerful Mittani kingdom. As Mittani crumbled, Ashur broke free, its rulers styling themselves “kings of Assyria”. Under Ashur-uballit I, Assyrian lands expanded over all of modern Iraq, and Assyria came into conflict with Babylonia and the Hittites. Like other Bronze Age powers, Assyria declined in the 11th century BCE, but the state survived.

Question 28

Describe the advances in warfare developed and enjoyed by the Neo-Assyrians. (page 80)

Answer 28

The Neo-Assyrians were famed warriors who adopted chariot warfare from earlier times, but who also were the first power to introduce cavalry units. Their army featured a mix of chariots, infantry, and cavalry. Also, the Neo-Assyrians had the advantage of mastery of new Iron Age technologies over less-advanced militaries. Standing forces (including mercenaries) under the king’s command were supplemented by provincial contingents mustered as part of tax obligations.

Question 29

Describe the ruthless policies toward conquered peoples that enhanced Neo-Assyrian power. (page 80)

Answer 29

Some of the tactics the Neo-Assyrians used for controlling their empire were impalement, mass execution, and mass “deportation” of conquered peoples. Such techniques were commonly used throughout the Middle East by other powers, but the Neo-Assyrians expanded upon the mass deportation tactic. These mass movements were actually more like “resettlements” because the moved peoples were given state assistance. The resettlements were designed to create a more uniform and manageable population, but also turned Assyria into a cultural melting pot.

Question 30

Describe the rules around Neo-Assyrian succession that helped keep their empire stable. (page 80)

Answer 30

The king could only come from the royal bloodline, so outsiders could not become king. Additionally, a new crown prince and heir was selected immediately after a new king took the throne, lessening the chance of coups and fights over succession.