Book 1, Chapter 3, Set 6

Question 1

Describe some of the founding events of Athenian imperialism in the 5th century BCE. (page 100)

Answer 1

Following the battle of Marathon in 480 BCE, Athens invested in a powerful navy. The importance of its oarsmen and navy had been demonstrated during a naval victory over the Persians at Salamis in 490 BCE. Also aiding in Athen’s rise were increasing colonization, dominance of the trade routes, the discovery of silver, and the creation in 477 BCE of the Delian League. Combined, these factors would make Athens the dominant power in Greece.

Question 2

What was the Parthenon and when was it completed? (page 100)

Answer 2

An Athenian temple dedicated to their patron goddess. It was built in 431 BCE by the Athenian orator and general Pericles following the defeat of the Persians with money from the Delian League.

Question 3

What was the Delian League? (page 100)

Answer 3

An alliance between Athens and other city-states for mutual protection from any future Persian invasions following the Persian defeat in 480 BCE.

Question 4

Describe the recording of history in Greece prior to the 6th century BCE. (page 102)

Answer 4

During and prior to the so-called Greek “Dark Age” (c. 1100 - 750 BCE), history was often passed down in the form of poetry and mixed with folklore and myth. For example, the works of the poet Homer, including the Iliad and the Odyssey (both inspired by the Trojan War), were examples of poetry transmitting history. Greek writing existed in the form of Linear A and Linear B, but seemed to have been lost during the Dark Age. After the Dark Age, however, a new Greek alphabet was invented and history could now be recorded in prose.

Question 5

Who was Herodotus? (pages 102 and 103)

Answer 5

Although earlier Greek historians wrote in prose, Herodotus (484 425 BCE) is largely considered “the father of history”. He wrote “The Histories”, a history largely focusing on the origins of the war between Greece and Persia during the 5th century BCE. He also recorded many accounts of his travels throughout the ancient world, including several amusing anecdotes about the customs of the various lands he visited. Although he was born in Halicarnassus (modern Bodrum in Turkey), he traveled to Egypt, Italy, Sicily, and Babylon, and lived in Athens for a time. Although his work cannot be relied upon as fact due to its dependency on oral history, tradition, and folklore, Herodotus is remembered as the first person to record his history in prose rather than verse and to organize his material systematically. Later historians would follow his example of recording facts over myths in prose form.

Question 6

Who was Thucydides? (page 203)

Answer 6

An Athenian writer famous for writing “History of the Peloponnesian War”. In 41 books, this work not only recounts the events of the war between Athens and Sparta, but also examined the long-term causes of the war and the moral issues it raised. Thucydides is famous for his modification of long speeches of famous figures with which he expresses his personal opinion.

Question 7

What was science like before 600 BCE? (page 104)

Answer 7

Most thought that we would consider scientific was used to help in everyday life. Just like earlier in Mesopotamia and Egypt, practical knowledge was the extent of scientific learning. Although a few people used mathematics and astronomy, these were used for specific, practical purposes. The myths told about the god(s) were not tested or even questioned.

Question 8

What were the first scientists called? (page 104)

Answer 8

“Natural philosophers”. They were the first recorded people to question the explanation of the natural world given by myth and legend. They used logic and reason to question such accounts.

Question 9

Who was Thales of Miletus? (page 104)

Answer 9

(c. 624 - 526) He was considered by many to be “the father of science”. His major project was to question the nature of matter. According to his theory, all solids, liquids, and gases were made of water. It is conjectured that he thought this because water is one of the few materials that the ancient Greeks could see in all three of these states.

Question 10

Who was Anaximenes? (page 104)

Answer 10

(c. 585 - 525 BCE) He was another ancient Greek “natural philosopher” (scientist). He hypothesized that the fundamental material of the world was air.

Question 11

Who was Heraclitus? (page 104)

Answer 11

(c. 535 - 475) He was a “natural philosopher” (early scientist) like Thales and Anaximenes who thought that the fundamental matter of the universe was fire.

Question 12

Who was Empedocles? (page 104)

Answer 12

(c. 490 - 430 BCE) He was a “natural philosopher” who claimed that all matter in the universe is made of the four elements of fire, earth, air, and water, and that all action in the universe concerns the movement of these four elements.

Question 13

Who were Leucippus and Democritus and what did they famously believe? (page 104)

Answer 13

Leucippus (born c. 480 BCE) and his student Democritus (born 460 BCE) were ancient Greeks who posited that the universe was made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms separated by empty space.

Question 14

What was the important thing about the earliest scientific thinkers? (page 104)

Answer 14

The earliest scientists (“natural philosophers”) were thinking rationally and philosophically about the universe and were making observations to satisfy human curiosity. This was the important element missing from all civilizations prior to the sixth century BCE.

Question 15

Who was Pythagoras? (page 104)

Answer 15

He was an ancient Greek who most notably believed that not only do numbers represent reality, but that the world is made of numbers. Pythagoras was fascinated by the mathematical relationships between everything in the universe, especially musical notes. However, he did not invent the Pythagorean theorem since it was known long before him. Mostly, his work was actually semi-religious, with a worship of numbers as divine.

Question 16

What effect did mathematics have on Plato’s views on science, politics, and ethics? (page 104)

Answer 16

Plato believed that each element is made of atoms with a particular idealized geometric shape. Plato further supposed that the real world was an imperfect reflection of an ideal, “theoretical”, and mathematically perfect world.

Question 17

Who was Aristotle, who was his teacher, how did his views differ from his teacher, and what is one of his most influential beliefs? (page 104)

Answer 17

(c. 384 - 322 BCE) He was a pupil of Plato. Aristotle reversed Plato’s ideas about the role of mathematics and the ideal world. Aristotle instead posited that the truth was to be found only in reality. This idea of empiricism is one of the most influential in the history of science. Aristotle was also one of the most prolific of the natural philosophers, writing texts on a wide range of subjects, including botany, zoology, astronomy, anatomy, and physics. Many of his theories were well thought out but relied on common sense rather than rigorous logic and careful thought. Many of his discoveries were later discovered to be seriously flawed.

Question 18

What was the early Roman government like (before Rome was ruled by a republic)? (page 106)

Answer 18

A monarch was elected by a Senate consisting of a council of elders from the heads of various clans. An Assembly consisting of all male citizens of Rome (citizenship was only granted to those whose parents were both native Romans) primarily worked to grant absolute power to the monarch once the monarch was approved by the Senate.

Question 19

What were some of the influences of the Etruscans on the early Romans? (page 106)

Answer 19

First, the Roman monarchs from the middle of the 6th century BCE were Etruscan. Secondly, the Etruscans gave the Romans their own style, passing on the toga, a distinctive art style, certain religious forms, the stone arch, sewage systems, and chariot racing. Finally, much of Greek influence was passed to the Romans through the Etruscans, including contributions in art, architecture, philosophy, science, and technology. The Etruscans also passed along the Greek alphabet, who developed it into the basis for many modern languages.

Question 20

How did Rome become a republic and what was the early republic like? (page 107)

Answer 20

Rome was ruled by seven kings before the last one, the Etruscan Tarquinius, was overthrown by Roman aristocrats. Instead of installing a new monarch, the Romans turned Rome into a republic. Two consuls (to counter over reliance on one person) were elected annually. The Senate began as a counter to despotism, but later became the true decision-making authority. Finally, two magistrates were chosen from among the Senate to uphold the law.

Question 21

What were the different political classes of people in ancient Rome? (page 107)

Answer 21

First, there were free and non-free (slaves). Of the free people of Rome, all could vote, but these were further divided into Patricians, an elite, landowning class, and Plebeians, who were all other citizens in Rome.

Question 22

Briefly describe Julius Caesar. (pages 108 and 109)

Answer 22

Born into a patrician (upper class) family of ancient lineage, Caesar grew up during the tumultuous crises that wracked the declining Roman republic. He was aligned through family and marriage with the “populares” faction who wanted to break the power of the senate and empower a wider group of people from the lower classes, headed by Caesar’s uncle, Gaius Marius. Caesar barely escaped with his life following a political victory by the rival conservative “optimates” clan under Sulla in 81 BCE. This setback slowed Caesar’s career, and he did not achieve prominence until his mid-thirties. When he was first widely known, Caesar was involved with a number of scandals, being known especially for his affairs with married women. He also spent far beyond his means in pursuit of public office, falling heavily into debt. Seen as a flamboyant and unscrupulous populist by the elite, he would often advocate for the distribution of land to war veterans and the poor. In 60 BCE, Caesar made a private political alliance between himself, the powerful general and politician Marcus Licinius Crassus, and Pompey, Rome’s most successful general, to dominate Roman politics. This “Triumvirate” would earn Caesar election to the consulship, the most important office of state. This was followed by appointment to command of the Roman provinces of Gaul, where he campaigned relentlessly and effectively against the area’s Germanic tribes. Often going beyond the boundaries of his provincial command, he would frequently cross the Rhine in Germany as far as the Thames River in Britain. These conquests earned him wealth and fame, but most importantly the loyalty of his army, which was now more loyal to him than to the Republic. In late 50 BCE, the Senate under Pompey called on Caesar to disband his army after his 10 year campaign had been successfully completed. Instead, Caesar led his legions across the Rubicon, the stream separating Cisalpine Gaul (the region to the south of the Alps) from Italy proper. Caesar easily invaded Rome, and fought for two years with Pompey over control of the Roman world. The battle of Pharsalus in August 48 BCE was decisive for Caesar, and Pompey escaped the scene of his defeat only to be murdered a month later in Egypt. Pompey’s sons, Sextus and Gaius, would continue the war until 45 BCE, but Caesar now had the supreme control he sought. Caesar’s new regime brought on some zealous innovations and reforms. He halved the number of Roman citizens dependent on handouts of bread by resettling the destitute in colonies in Italy and abroad, and reformed the calendar (the Julian calendar). However, his arrogance in calling himself “dictator for life” and advertising the fact on coins may have angered many contemporaries. In March of 44 BCE, Caesar planned to lead a campaign against the Parthians in the Middle East. A group of senators led by Gaius Cassius Longinus and Marcus Junius Brutus conspired to kill him to bring back the Roman republic as well as to protect their own privileges. They stabbed him to death in the assembly hall where he had come to address the Senate. Ironically, his assassination led to the end of the Republic and two years after his death, Caesar was honored as a god by the Senate.

Question 23

What happened to the Roman Empire after the assassination of Caesar?

Answer 23

Caesar’s successors, the Roman general Mark Antony and Caesar’s adopted son Octavian, fought each other and split the empire into west (Octavian) and east (Antony). Octavian defeated Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE. A year later, Octavian took over Egypt and became the supreme leader of the Roman state. Octavian kept up some pretensions of republic, but effectively became Rome’s supreme leader, taking the title “Augustus” in 27 BCE.

Question 24

When did Mount Vesuvius erupt and bury the Roman cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum? (page 112)

Answer 24

August 79 CE.

Question 25

What were some of the factors that made the Roman Empire so stable and prosperous during the first two centuries CE? (pages 111 and 112)

Answer 25

Roman leaders were quick to crush any insurrection from within or outside. The Roman military was also legendary, with a standing army instead of a seasonal one such as in much of the republic. Roman soldiers were professional, highly organized, skilled, and loyal to the emperor. The empire also benefited from Rome’s famous feats of engineering, having roads, bridges, viaducts, harbors, and aqueducts to speed transport and trade and benefit the empire’s inhabitants.

Question 26

What were some of the great Roman architectural achievements? (page 112)

Answer 26

First, the Romans made extensive use of concrete by the time of the empire. Along with architectural elements like the arch, this allowed for massive constructions like the Colosseum (completed in 70 AD), and the Pantheon (c. 126 AD).

Question 27

What were some factors leading to the decline of the Roman Empire? (page 113 and outside sources)

Answer 27

The Antonine Plague killed about 5 million people worldwide from the years 165 CE to 180 CE, including two Roman emperors. The years from 235 to 284 CE also were a time of great chaos for the empire, with a rapid succession of emperors murdered one after the other. Other problems also beset the empire around this time, including starvation, plague, inflation, high taxation, and “barbarian” attacks. Some regions like Gaul (France) and Britain also started to assert their own interests and threaten imperial authority. In 284 CE, the period of crisis momentarily ended when the general Diocletian made himself emperor and created the first imperial college of four emperors (the Tetrarchy) to try to oversee four portions of the empire. Diocletian issued an edict in 301 CE to try to stabilize the empire’s economy. However, the second Tetrarchy broke down and prefigured the empire’s eventual split into western and eastern halves in 395 CE. Finally, in the early part of the 4th century CE, the Roman emperor Constantine (280 - 337 CE) established a “second Rome” at Byzantium (modern Istanbul), renaming the city Constantinople. This was the east/west split of the empire.

Question 28

Breifly describe the life of Cleopatra VII. (pages 120 and 121)

Answer 28

Cleopatra VII was born into the Ptolemaic Dynasty set up by Ptolemy Lagus, one of Alexander the Great’s trusted generals. She was a daughter of Ptolemy XII. In theory, Egypt was independent when in reality it was controlled by Rome. The Romans backed the monarchs of Egypt in return for financial favors. When her father died in 51 BCE, Cleopatra was expected to share the throne with her brother and expected husband Ptolemy XIII. However, Ptolemy XIII wanted to be the sole ruler, so he had Cleopatra deprived of power and exiled by 49 BCE. In 48 BCE, Julius Caesar led a military campaign to Egypt, and Cleopatra, fearing for her life, became his lover. Julius would defeat an Egyptian army led by one of Cleopatra’s sisters, Arsinoe IV. During the same campaign, Ptolemy XII drowned, weighted down by his golden armor. Cleopatra now ruled Egypt with her younger brother, Ptolemy XIV. Caesar was in Rome when Cleopatra gave birth to their son, Ptolemy Caesar, or Caesarion (“little Caesar”). Cleopatra visited Rome, perhaps in time to see Arsinoe IV displayed in Caesar’s triumph. After Caesar’s assassination, Cleopatra returned to Egypt, where she likely arranged Ptolemy XIV’s assassination, who she replaced with Caesarion (Ptolemy XV). She strengthened her country for three years and carefully avoided the power struggle between Mark Antony and Octavian that broke out after Caesar’s assassination. When Antony lay claim to the eastern part of the empire in 42 BCE, he summoned Cleopatra to Tarsus. There, Cleopatra and Antony became lovers, but Antony would rejoin his Roman wife Fulvia in Greece. She had fled there after a failed rebellion against Octavian in Italy. By 40 BCE, Fulvia was dead, allowing Antony to marry Octavian’s sister Octavia to cement a peace treaty. By this time, Cleopatra had given birth to twins, Alexander Helios (sun) and Cleopatra Selene (moon). In 37 BCE, Antony returned to Egypt and, while still wed to Octavia, married Cleopatra. Antony went on a campaign against the Parthians while Cleopatra was still expecting the child she would name Ptolemy Philadelphus. Antony led another victorious campaign in Armenia, then returned to Egypt and took part in an event called “Donations of Alexandria”. This event had Cleopatra and Antony seated on golden thrones and proclaimed as living gods, Cleopatra as Isis and Antony as DIonysus/Osiris. They also claimed lands belonging to Rome for their children. In response to this, Octavian led a campaign against Cleopatra and Antony, defeating them both at the Battle of Actium, off the coast of Greece. She fled back to Egypt with 60 ships laden with treasure and Antony. Besieged at Alexandria, Antony committed suicide, and Cleopatra, perhaps afraid of being the star of Octavian’s triumph, killed herself as well, supposedly with a poisonous snake hidden in a basket of figs. Octavian honored her wish to be buried with Antony, and though Caesarion was executed, all her other children were spared.

Question 29

Describe how the Parthians were able to conquer the remains of the Seleucid Empire. (page 122)

Answer 29

The Seleucid Empire ruled over most of the Asian conquests of Alexander, including all of Persia and Mesopotamia. However, the empire started crumbling around the 3rd century BCE as its many subjects asserted their authority. One of these was the Parthians, formerly nomads who had settled in the northeast of the old Persian Empire, they gained independence from the Seleucids by 238 BCE. They expanded east and took control of the trades routes to China, strangling what was left of the Seleucid Empire. Under their king Mithridates I, they overpowered Mesopotamia to take all the lands from India to the Tigris River. The Parthians annexed the Seleucid kingdom, thus becoming neighbors with the Romans. They would constantly fight border battles with the Romans to the West and Steppe nomads to the North.