Book 1, Chapter 4, Set 8 Flashcards
Describe the kingdom that rose after Louis the Child died. (page 189)
The dukes who had banded together to choose a king for their lands after Louis the Child died selected a line of rulers who were mostly from Saxony in eastern Germany. They grew steadily more powerful. The most successful of them was Otto I (reigned 936 to 973 CE). Otto benefitted from the discovery of silver in the Harz Mountains in Saxony in 938 CE. This allowed his to pay for a large army and a string of fortified towns. He expanded his German empire eastward, inflicting a major defeat on the Magyars to the east at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955 CE. Like Charles before him, Otto cultivated the church, encouraging the conversion of non-Christians and founding new bishoprics. He appointed abbots and bishops and sought to strengthen the authority of the church at the expense of the secular nobility. In 961 CE, Otto invaded northern Italy and was crowned emperor by the pope, John XII, cementing the connection between the pope and the emperor of what would become the Holy Roman Empire.
Describe the invasion of England by France in the 11th century CE and the import of feudalism to England by this invasion. (pages 190 and 191)
The system known as feudalism was well established in France by the 10th century CE when a Viking leader named Rollo agreed to stop raiding the coasts of France in return for the right to settle in the northern part of the country. Rollo became the vassal of the Carolingian ruler, Charles the Simple, and his people became known as the Normans. In 1066, Duke William of Normandy invaded England, became its king, and granted lands to many of his Norman followers. Feudalism was firmly established in England.
Who was William the Conqueror? (page 191)
William (1027 - 1087), Duke of Normandy, invaded England in 1066 CE. He defeated his rival, Harold, at the Battle of Hastings, and became king William I of England. He appointed many French noblemen as his vassals, making the aristocracy of England mostly Norman for many years. William and his nobles also built many castles over his kingdom.
Who was King Alfred? (page 189)
Alfred the Great (c. 849 - 899 CE) was an Anglo-Saxon king of Wessex (southern England). At the Battle of Edington in 878, he defeated the Danes, who had already occupied northern and eastern England and were attacking Wessex. Basing his style of rule on Charlemagne, he strengthened his kingdom against further attacks, building fortified towns and establishing a navy. Alfred also promoted education and the arts. He left his kingdom much stronger than he found it, and laid the foundations for his successors to unite England under a single ruler.
Explain some of the factors that led to the decline of feudalism? (page 191)
During the 14th and 15th centuries, societal changes made feudal relations decline in importance. Increasingly, vassals paid their dues in money rather than military service. At the same time, the middle class grew more powerful. The Renaissance led to a cultural shift back to classical influences on painting, architectural styles, and learning. Around 1438, a German metalworker named Johannes Gutenberg invented a method of making metal printing type, allowing the printing of books and the rapid circulation of ideas in Europe.
Describe the events and crisis leading up to the Battle of Hastings and describe the Battle itself. (page 192)
In 11th-century England, many contenders vied to become king of England. The king at the time, Edward the Confessor (1003 to 1066 CE), told William of Normandy that he would be king in 1051. But when a Viking invasion from the north seemed likely in the early 1060s, Edward promised the throne to the Danish Svein Estrithsson. Harald Hardraada had already been promised the throne by a previous king. Finally, the English nobility preferred a local ruler, and Edward also promised Harold of Wessex the throne. In January 1066, Edward died and Harold marched north to fight an invasion by Harald Hardraada. Harold won this battle, but William of Normandy was also invading from across the English Channel. Harold quickly marched south, hoping to take the Normans by surprise. William was expecting the attack, however, and the Normans attacked Harold soon after he arrived. The two armies were closely matched at about 8,000 men each. At first, the English seemed superior, their foot soldiers fighting in close, efficient formations. When a rumor spread that William had been killed, the Normans began to crumble, but William raised his visor to prove he was alive. The tide turned from then on due to the Norman archers and mounted knights. Finally, Harold was wounded and then set upon by knights. Harold was killed and William claimed victory.
Describe the Christian church reform movement of the 11th century CE. (pages 194 and 195)
Prior to the 11th century, the Christian monasteries throughout Europe had tended to follow their own interpretations of the monastic rule. As Western Europe emerged from a period of being threatened by raids from Vikings from the north, Arabs from the south, and Magyars from the Eurasian steppes, a move toward reform began. The reform movement centered on the Burgundian monastery of Cluny and on Gorze in the Rhineland and sought to impose a more consistent interpretation of the original monastic “Rule” of Saint Benedict. Under the influence of Cluny, Europe’s monasteries merged into more uniform “orders” with a renewed commitment to discipline, prayer, and study. In 1098, another monastic order emerged, the Cistercians based at Citeaux in France. The Cistercians rejected the wealth of Cluny in favor on manual labor, strict discipline, and austerity.
Describe the attempts at papal reform in the 11th century CE. (page 195)
The popes of the 11th century sought to create more distinction between the secular and the sacred. Popes such as Leo IX sought to limit practices such as clerical marriage and the purchase of church positions (simony). He also attempted to strengthen papal authority by making ceremonial journeys and summoning bishops to synods (church councils).
What was the investiture controversy? (page 195)
Pope Gregory VII (formerly a Clunaic monk named Hildebrand) wanted to strengthen the authority of the papacy. In 1075, he issued a statement claiming his status at spiritual head of Christendom. He thusly claimed that his authority came from God Himself and therefore was above the authority of any secular power. A major dispute concerned the investiture (appointment) of bishops and other senior church officials. Since Charlemagne, secular rulers had involved themselves in this process to ensure a sympathetic church. Gregory wanted the authority to lie solely with the Church and, thus, with himself. In 1076, the German emperor Henry IV appointed the archbishop of Milan, but Gregory opposed the appointment. Henry convinced the bishops of the German empire to declare the pope deposed, but Gregory responded by excommunicating Henry. When the German princes rebelled against Henry and elected an alternate emperor, Henry decided to do public penance and ask the pope to lift his excommunication. Henry was granted penance after four days of absolution, but the conflict between papacy and empire seethed on until 1122, when a compromise was reached at the Concordat of Worms.
Describe the religious crises that occured in Christendom from the 12th to early 15th centuries CE. (pages 195 and 196)
First, in 12th-century England, Henry II clashed with Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, over whether clergy should be subject to common law rather than that of the church. Becket’s murder by Henry’s knights made Becket a martyr to the cause of church independence, and Henry was forced to back down. By the late 14th century, the Church and the papacy itself were divided. Pope Urban VI, elected in 1378, alienated his supporters in the papal court, and the cardinals responded by electing a rival pope. This “antipope”, Clement VII, established his own papal court in Avignon, France. The German emperor recognized the Roman pope, but the French king backed the rival pope, and other states took sides. This resulting split, the “Great Schism”, between a succession of popes and antipopes weakened the authority of the papacy. For several years there was even a third pope. The schism was finally resolved in 1414 at the Council of Constance, with the pope in Rome recognized as legitimate.
Describe the waning of Church involvement in the spiritual life of urban classes during the late medieval period in Europe. (page 196)
The merchants and craftsmen of Europe could now read and write thanks to the spread of the printing press. The Church no longer had a monopoly on the spread of ideas. These people were often better educated than the clergy, and more open to alternate forms of religious devotion. This led to the search for a more personal, informal, and sympathetic relationship with God. The Virgin Mary was seen as more approachable than other saints, and her worship became more popular during this time.
Describe the Franciscan and Dominican friars. (page 196)
These two religious orders were founded in the 13th century. They were known as “mendicants”, from the Latin for “beggars”, and renounced personal property and the richly endowed abbeys. The friars were part of the new urban culture, building churches and schools in the middle of towns and preaching in public squares. They depended on charity, further connecting them to the ordinary people.
Describe the origins of the Dominican order in the campaign against the Albigensians, and the rise of the Inquisition. (page 196)
The Dominican order had its roots in the campaign against the Albigensians, or Cathars, a heretical movement in southern France who believed that the existence of evil contradicted the idea of a one benevolent God. The papacy would come to define Christian doctrine more exactly and strictly in the 13th to 14th centuries, and there was a corresponding intolerance of unorthodoxy and deviants such as the Albigensians. By the Synod of Toulouse in 1229, the ecclesiastical tribunals known as inquisitions had developed into a more formal institution charged with the suppression of heresy. Staffed by Dominicans, the medieval Inquisition operated mainly in France and Italy. This persecution of heretics – and, more broadly, anyone who disagreed with Roman Catholic orthodoxy – was the dark side of the highly efficient medieval Church.
Who was Saint Francis of Assisi? (page 196)
The son of a wealthy merchant in the Italian town of Assissi. In 1209, he was inspired by a sermon to give away all his worldly possessions. He began to live like a beggar, traveling barefoot, preaching repentance, and aiding the poor. In time he was joined by two champions, and they determined to live by the rule of poverty and simplicity that Christ had given to his apostles. In 1210, Francis gained the blessing of Pope Innocent III for his new order, the Franciscans. By his death in 1226, his followers numbered many thousands.
Describe the city of Byzantium and the Byzantine Empire up until the deposition of the last Western Roman emperor in 476 CE.
The Byzantine Empire grew out of the eastern Roman Empire, gradually acquiring a new Greek Christian culture that replaced the traditions of ancient Rome. According to legend, the Megaran king, Byzas, founded the Greek city of Byzantium in 667 BCE on the advice of the oracle at Delphi. In 293 CE, the emperor Diocletian split the Roman Empire. When Constantine defeated his last rival to become sole emperor in 324 CE, he decided to build a new capital, Nova Roma (New Rome) at Byzantium. Completed in 330 CE, it became known as Constantinople after his death. In 395 CE, the Roman Empire was definitively split by Emperor Theodosius, the eastern empire being ruled from Constantinople. The last Roman Emperor was deposed in 476 CE, but by then the real power in the west were the Goths, Vandals, Franks, and other Germanic peoples.
