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Z OLD Tissues of the Body > Blood Cells and Haemopoesis > Flashcards

Blood Cells and Haemopoesis Flashcards

1
Q

Where are blood cells first produced in the foetus?

A

By the mesoderm and the yolk sac

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2
Q

Where are the blood cells produced after the mesoderm of the yolk sac?

A

By the liver and spleen, and then finally by the bone marrow

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3
Q

Where do all the cellular components of the blood arise from?

A

Stem cells

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4
Q

What are stem cells capable of?

A

Division and differentiation

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5
Q

What two main lines develop from stem cells?

A

NAME?

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6
Q

What is meant by ‘blasts’?

A

Cells capable of division

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7
Q

What are myeloid blasts the precursors of?

A
  • Erythrocytes
  • Granulocytes
  • Monocytes
  • Platelets
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8
Q

What are erythrocytes?

A

Red cells

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9
Q

What are granulocytes?

A

White cells with granules in the cytoplasm

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10
Q

What are monocytes?

A

Macrophage precursors

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11
Q

What are lymphoblasts the precursors of?

A

Lymphocytes

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12
Q

What happens to lymphocytes once they have been produced?

A

They leave the bone marrow, and some pass through the thymus

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13
Q

What happens to lymphocytes that pass through the thymus?

A

They transform into T cells

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14
Q

What can T cells do?

A

Some can kill virus infected cells in cellular immunity

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15
Q

What do B cells do?

A

Produce antibody molecules responsible for humoral immunity

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16
Q

Where can further division of differentiation of lymphocytes occur?

A

In lymph nodes and lymphoid aggregates throughout the body

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17
Q

Where are early blood cells held?

A

In the bone marrow

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18
Q

What holds early blood cells in the bone marrow?

A

Adhesion molecules

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19
Q

Give 2 examples of adhesion molecules

A
  • Collagen
  • Fibronectin
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20
Q

What happens as blood cells mature?

A

The adhesion molecule receptors on their surface downregulate, leading to the release of mature cells into circulation

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21
Q

What regulates the rate of division and differentiation of blood cells?

A

Various growth factors known as cytokines

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22
Q

What is the function of red blood cells?

A
  • To carry oxygen from the lungs to all the tissues of the body
  • To transport CO 2 back to the lungs
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23
Q

What is RBC production regulated?

A

By a feedback system which increases the production of erythropoietin form peritubular endothelial cells in the kidney in response to hypoxia

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24
Q

What does erythropoietin do?

A

Increases the rate of RBC production and release from teh bone marrow, thereby increasing oxygen carrying capacity of the blood

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25
Q

How is oxygen carried in RBC?

A

Bound to haemoglobin

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26
Q

What does haemoglobin consist of?

A

4 globin chains (2 α and 2 ß)

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27
Q

What does each globin chain carry?

A

A haem molecule

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28
Q

What does each haem molecule do?

A

Binds to oxygen

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29
Q

Are globin chains tightly or loosely bound?

A

Loosely

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30
Q

What does globin chain interaction depend on?

A

Oxygen tension

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31
Q

What is the end effect of haem binding?

A

A very efficient oxygen dissociation curve

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32
Q

What is the oxygen dissociation curve of haemoglobin so effective?

A

Because oxygen is more tightly bought in areas of high oxygen tension, and more readily released in areas of low oxygen tension

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33
Q

How long does the average RBC survive for?

A

120 days

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34
Q

What happens when a RBC has reached the end of its lifespan?

A

It is broken down, with other abnormal RBCs, in the lvier and spleen

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35
Q

What happens to the components of RBC on breaking down?

A
  • The iron is recycled
  • The protoporphyrin of haem is metabolised to bilirubin
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36
Q

What are leucocytes?

A

Nucleated cells which circulate in the blood

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37
Q

What do leucocytes include?

A
  • Neutrophils
  • Eosinophils
  • Basophils
  • Monocytes
  • Lymphocytes
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38
Q

What do mature neutrophils have?

A

Multi-lobed nucleus and small granules in the cytoplasm

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39
Q

What is the function of neutrophils?

A

To migrate out of the circulation to a site of infection and destroy foreign material by phagocytosis

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40
Q

What is the process of migration to site of infection known as?

A

Chemotaxis

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41
Q

What does chemotaxis occur in response to?

A

Chemotactic substances released by bacteria or other white cells already presented in the infected or damaged tissue

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42
Q

What do some cytokines do regarding neutrophils?

A
  • Increase neutrophil production
  • Increase chemotaxis and phagocytosis
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43
Q

Give an example of a cytokine that has an influence on neutrophils?

A

G-CSF

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44
Q

How long does the average neutrophil survive?

A

About 10 hours

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45
Q

What do eosinophils have?

A

Bilobed nucleus and orange granules

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46
Q

What do eosinophils do?

A
  • Phagocytosis
  • Release cytotoxic enzymes
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47
Q

What is the purpose of the cytotoxic enzymes released by eosinophils?

A

To damage larger particles

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48
Q

What are numbers of eosinophils increased in association with?

A

Allergic reaction and atopy

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49
Q

What do basophils have?

A

Many large, dark purple granules

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50
Q

What do basophils do?

A

Mediate acute inflammatory reactions

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51
Q

What do mediatory basophils include?

A

Heparin and histamine

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52
Q

Describe a monocyte

A

Large, with folded nucleus, grey/blue cytoplasm and occasional vacuoles

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53
Q

When can monocytes move out of circulation?

A

After 20-40 hours

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54
Q

What happens once monocytes have moved out of the circulation?

A

They migrate to become macrophages in many other oragans in the body

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55
Q

What are macrophages known as in the liver?

A

Kupffer cells

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56
Q

What are macrophages known as in the brain?

A

Glial cells

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57
Q

What do monocytes do?

A

Chemotaxis, moving towards areas of infection, inflammation or neoplasm. Can phagocytose and interact with T cells

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58
Q

Describe lymphocytes

A

Small cells, with round nucleus and rim of pale blue cytoplasm

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59
Q

What % of lymphocytes are T?

A

75%

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60
Q

What are T lymphocytes responsible for?

A

Cellular immunity

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61
Q

What are T lymphocytes processed by?

A

Thymus

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62
Q

What cells are released from lymphocytes?

A

Only those which can recognise self-histocompatibilty molecules (HLA- human leucocyte antigens), but not react against them

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63
Q

What are helper cells?

A

T cells expressing CD4 on their surface

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64
Q

What do helper cells do?

A

Recognise antigens attached to HLA class II molecules, and stimulate cytotoxic cells

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65
Q

How to helper cells stimulate cytotoxic cells?

A

By expressing CD8

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66
Q

What does CD8 expression do?

A

Recognises and kills virally infected host cels

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67
Q

What does CD4-expressing helper T cells permit?

A

The transformation of B cells to plasma cells

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68
Q

What are B lymphocytes responsible for?

A

Humoral immunity

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69
Q

What can B cells be stimulated by?

A

Antigens

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70
Q

What happens to B cells on stimulation with antigens?

A

They transform into immunoblasts, and then plasma cells

71
Q

What do plasma cells do?

A

Secrete immunoglobulins

72
Q

What are immunoglobulins?

A

Antibody molecules

73
Q

What are platelets?

A

Small round blue particles

74
Q

What produces platelets?

A

The cytoplasm of megakaryocytes in the bone marrow

75
Q

What do platelets have?

A
  • Cytoplasm containing alpha granules and dense granules
  • Complex surface membrane
76
Q

What do alpha granules contain?

A

Fibrinogen, von Willebrand’s Factor and other large molecules

77
Q

What do dense granules contain?

A

Small molecules such as ADP and calcium

78
Q

What does platelet activation result in?

A

Adhesion to damaged cell wall and aggregation with other platelets

79
Q

What to platelets present?

A

A phospholipid surface

80
Q

What is the purpose of the presentation of the phospholipid surface by platelets?

A

Provides binding sites for clotting factors during the activation of the clotting cascade

81
Q

What is blood classified as?

A

A loose connective tissue

82
Q

What are the two main parts of blood?

A

NAME?

83
Q

Give two examples of the formed elements of blood

A
  • Blood cells
  • Platelets
84
Q

What is the liquid phase of blood called?

A

Plasma

85
Q

How does plasma appear histologically?

A

Structureless, homogenous

86
Q

What % of blood volume does plasma constitute?

A

55%

87
Q

What are the cells of the blood called?

A

Blood corpuscles

88
Q

What are the two types of blood corpuscles?

A

NAME?

89
Q

What are leucocytes further classified into?

A
  • Polymorphonucleur granulocytes
  • Agranulocytes
90
Q

What are polymorphonucleur granulocytes?

A

Cells whose nuclei are lobed, and whose cytoplasm is filled with granules

91
Q

What are agranulocytes?

A

Cells having normal looking nucleus and cytoplasm, free of granules

92
Q

What does the blood contain in addition to these corpuscles?

A

Platelets

93
Q

Does a mature erythrocyte possess a nucelus?

A

No

94
Q

What shape in a mature erythrocyte?

A

A biconcave disc, about 7.5µm in diameter

95
Q

Why do erythrocytes often appear circular in blood smears?

A

They are often orientated ‘face on’

96
Q

What must be true for an erythrocytes true form to be seen in micrographs?

A

The film must be sufficiently thick for them to be seen in lateral profile

97
Q

What is an important characteristic of erythrocytes?

A

They are extremely flexible

98
Q

What is the advantage of erythrocytes being extremely flexible?

A

They can pass through the smallest of blood vessels, the capillaries, whose diameter may be less than theirs

99
Q

What are a small proportion of red blood cells known as?

A

Reticulocytes

100
Q

How much of the circulating RBCs are known as reticulocytes?

A

1%

101
Q

What are reticulocytes?

A

Newly formed RBC which have only just been discharged into the blood from the bone marrow

102
Q

What stain is used for blood smears?

A

Leishmanns

103
Q

What should be looked for when inspecting a blood smear?

A
  • Scan the slide for even cell distribution
  • Avoid periphery of slide as spread is too thick where the drop of blood was placed, and too thin where the cells are widely dispersed where smear ended
104
Q

What shape are polymorphonuclear granulocytes?

A

Round

105
Q

How big are polymorphonuclear granulocytes?

A

10-12µm

106
Q

What do polymorphonuclear granulocytes have?

A

A nucleus which has 2-5 lobes
Cytoplasmic granules

107
Q

What are the polymorphonuclear granulocytes classified as?

A
  • Neutrophils
  • Eosinophils
  • Basophils
108
Q

What are the most numerous of the granulocytes?

A

Neutrophils

109
Q

How do neutrophils appear?

A

Pale cytoplasm containing very indistinct granules

110
Q

What kind of cells are neutrophils?

A

Phagocytic

111
Q

What do histological methods show regarding neutrophils?

A

The granules are actually lysosomes containing digestive enzymes

112
Q

How long do neutrophils cells last?

A

Short lived

113
Q

What happens to neutrophils?

A

They become pus cells

114
Q

Where are gross accumulations of pus cells visible?

A

In abscesses as pus

115
Q

What are neutrophils able to do?

A

Migrate through the walls of the blood vessels to reach sites where their phagocytic action is required

116
Q

How do eosinophils appear?

A

They have a cytoplasm which is completely filled with large granules which stain red

117
Q

Describe the properties of eosinophils

A
  • Highly mobile
  • Weakly phagocytic
118
Q

What do eosinophils ingest?

A

Antigen-antiobdy complexes

119
Q

What is the result of eosinophils ingesting antigen-antibody complexes?

A

The blood level of eosinophils is abnormally high in allergic conditions such as asthma or hay fever

120
Q

What are the least common cells in blood?

A

Basophils

121
Q

What is the most distinctive feature of basophils?

A

Their granules stain intensely blue

122
Q

What do basophil granules contain?

A

Heparin, serotonin and histamine

123
Q

What do basophils resemble?

A

Mast cells

124
Q

What are basophils concerned with?

A

The inflammatory response

125
Q

When are basophils released into the tissue?

A

After local tissue damage, released into site of injury

126
Q

What does histamine cause?

A

Vasodilation and leakage of fluid into the tissues (oedema)

127
Q

What does heparin do?

A

Prevents clotting of the blood

128
Q

What are the two types of agranulocytes found in the circulating blood?

A

Monocytes and lymphocytes

129
Q

What system to monocytes belong to?

A

Macrophage

130
Q

What kind of cells are monocytes?

A

Actively phagocytic

131
Q

How big are monocytes?

A

Largest cell in peripheral blood, being almost twice the size of neutrophils

132
Q

Describe the nucleus of monocytes

A

Classified as mononuclear cells, but the nucleus irregular in shape, often kidney-shaped and so indented that it may appear to be lbed

133
Q

What differentiates monocytes from lymphocytes?

A

Monocytes have abundant cytoplasm

134
Q

Does monocytes have lysosomes?

A

Yes, they are present in the cytoplasm, but are barely visible under the light microscope

135
Q

What are the main characteristics on monocytes?

A

Their mobility and phagocytic power

136
Q

What is meant by the motility of monocytes?

A

They readily pass through the walls of the smallest blood vessels into the surrounding tissues

137
Q

What are monocytes known as once they are in the tissue?

A

Histiocytes (tissue macrophages)

138
Q

What happens to monocytes when the immune reaction subsides?

A

They may return to the circulation

139
Q

Describe the appearance of lymphocytes

A

They have a very high nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio, with a thin rim of cytoplasm evident around the nucleus
Under the electron microscope, small cytoplasmic projections are visible on the surface

140
Q

What is different about larger lymphocytes?

A

The cytoplasm is more abundant

141
Q

How does the nuclear chromatin of lymphocytes stain?

A

Darkly, usually clumped appearance

142
Q

What does the identification of different lymphocyte subsets require?

A

The use of monoclonal antibodies

143
Q

What do small lymphocytes do?

A

They are actively mobile cells, which can pass between endothelial cells lining the blood vessels and thus enter adjacent tissues

144
Q

How is the presence of accumulation of lymphocytes in various tissues explained?

A

By their migration out of the circulation

145
Q

Where by aggregations of lymphocytes be found?

A

In certain chronic inflammatory states and around skin grafts

146
Q

What happens to lymphocytes that have left the circulation?

A

They return to the main blood stream by way of the lymphatic system

147
Q

What is the importance of the lymphocytes?

A

They are a fundamental part of the adaptive immune response to foreign materials

148
Q

What are the smallest cells in the blood?

A

Blood platelets (thrombocytes)

149
Q

Do platelets have nuclei?

A

No

150
Q

How do platelets tend to occur?

A

In groups

151
Q

How do platelets appear in blood smears?

A

Centre appears dark purple, while periphery may be lighter in colour

152
Q

What is the function of platelets?

A

To assist in clotting (coagulation or thrombosis) or blood

153
Q

What are platelets rich in?

A
  • Compounds which cause constriction of blood vessel walls
  • Phospholipid factor III
154
Q

What compound causes constriction of blood vessel walls?

A

Serotonin

155
Q

Where do platelets accumulate?

A

At sites of injury

156
Q

What do platelets do at sites of injury?

A

Release serotonin to cause constriction

157
Q

What are platelets responsible for?

A

Forming the clot or thrombus

158
Q

What does phospholipid factor III do?

A

Activates prothrombin into thrombin

159
Q

What does thrombin does?

A

Converts soluble fibrinogen to insoluble fibrin in blood

160
Q

What does blood plasma contain?

A

Large number of substances such as proteins (albumins, globulins and fibrinogen), and traces of mineral ions, all of which are dissolved in water. Also contains minute fat globules (chylomicrons) and small particles of broken down blood corpuscles

161
Q

What % of plasma does water constitute?

A

90%

162
Q

What are the stages of haemopoiesis?

A

Proliferation
Differentiation

163
Q

What happens in proliferation?

A

Starting with a stem cell, the cell divides into two

164
Q

Why does the stem cell divide into two in proliferation?

A

One to replace the original stem cell (self-renewal), and one that differentiates

165
Q

What happens in the differentiation stage of haemopoiesis?

A

The haemopoietic progenitor will first differentiate to form either a myeloid blast or a lymphoid blast

166
Q

What do myeloid blasts go on to be?

A

RBC, WBC or platelet

167
Q

What do lymphoid blasts go on to be?

A

Immuneresponse cells

168
Q

What does the progenitor cell differentiate into under the influence of?

A

A particular cytokine

169
Q

What is eryhtropoiesis controlled by?

A

Partial pressure of oxygen

170
Q

What does a low partial pressure of oxygen stimulate?

A

Increase in erythrypoietin

171
Q

What is the life span of a red blood cell?

A

120 days

172
Q

What shape is a RBC?

A

Biconcave, flexible disc

173
Q

What is the purpose of the shape of RBCs?

A

It facilitates the passage through microcirculation

174
Q

Describe the process of haem catabolism?

A
  • Red blood cells are broken down into haemoglobin
  • Haemoglobin is broken down into haem
  • Haem is broken down in bilirubin
  • Bilirubin passes into the liver
  • Once in liver, bilirubin either passes to kidney, or to gall bladder through bile duct to small intestine.
  • If in small intestine, bilirubin passes down to large intestine, and is either converted to stercobilin or urobilinogen
  • Stercobilin continues down large intestine
  • Urobilirubin is passed to kidney and excreted

Z OLD Tissues of the Body (19 decks)

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