Blood 2024 Flashcards
Composition of the Blood
1) __________
2)_____________
Plasma
The Formed Elements
Formed elements include:
___________
____________
____________
Erythrocytes
Platelets
Leukocytes
Formed elements :Leukocytes (white blood cells, WBCs)
____________
____________
Granulocytes
Agranulocytes
Granulocytes : list them
Agranulocytes: list them
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils
Lymphocytes
Monocytes
Major Functions of Blood
- Distribution & Transport
a. _________ from lungs to body cells
b. _________ from body cells to lungs
c. _________ from GI tract to body cells
e. _________ from glands to body cells
oxygen
carbon dioxide
nutrients
hormones
Major Functions of Blood
1. Distribution & Transport
a. oxygen from ________ to ________
b. carbon dioxide from ________ to ________
c. nutrients from ________ to ________
e. hormones from ________ to ________
lungs to body cells
body cells to lungs
GI tract to body cells
glands to body cells
Major Functions of Blood
Regulation (maintenance of homeostasis
a.Maintenance of normal body pH( ______________ system)
b.It helps in the exchange of _______,_________, and ________ between various body compartments
c.maintenance of ______________ (_______ skin)
bicarbonate system
water, electrolytes and hydrogen ions
temperature ; blushed skin
When excessive heat is generated, blood allows the —————- via __________ from the _______ and ______
loss of heat
evaporation of water
lungs and skin
Major functions of Blood
Protection
____________ , chemical agents,
_________, and _______ elements that
are important in the defence of the
body against infection or invasion by
foreign tissue/organism.
Humoral antibodies
enzymes
cellular elements
Major functions of Blood
1)_____________________
2) _____________________
3) _____________________
Distribution and Transport
Maintenance of homeostasis
Protection
General Properties of Whole Blood
- Fraction of body weight : ___%
- Volume : male _______; female _______
- temperature: _________
- pH : ___________
8%
Male: 5-6 L
Female: 4-5 L
38 C (100.4 F)
7.35 - 7.45
General properties of whole blood
-Viscosity (relative to water):
Whole blood: __________
plasma: _______
- Osmolarity:_______
- Mean salinity (mainly NaCl):_________
4.5-5.5
2.0
280-300 mOsm/L
0.85%
Hematocrit
RBCs as percent of total blood volume
- Female: ____%-____%
- male: ____%-____%
Female: 37%-48%
- male: 45%-52%
General Properties of Whole Blood
Hemoglobin Female: ________; male:_____
Mean RBC count: Female:_____; male:____
Platelet counts: _________-___________
Total WBC counts: _________-________
12-16 g/100 ml
13-18 g/100 ml
4.8 million/l
5.4 million/l
130,000-360,000/l
4,000-11,000/l
Composition of Plasma
Proteins : Total __-___ g/100 ml
Albumin
____% of total plasma protein
Globulin
____% of total plasma protein
Fibrinogen
——% of total plasma protein
Enzymes of diagnostic value :_______
6-9
60
36
4
Trace
Composition of plasma
Mention 15
Water
Proteins
Glucose
Amino acid
Lactic acid
Nitrogenous waste
Respiratory gases
Iron
Vitamins
Electrolytes
LDL
HDL
Triglycerides
Phospholipids
Cholesterol
Fatty acids
PLASMA
Plasma is a _______-colored clear liquid part of blood.
It contains ____% to ___% of water and ___% to ____% of solids
(organic and inorganic substances)
straw
91% ; 92%
8% ; 9%
Serum = _______ – ________
Plasma – Fibrinogen
__________ = Plasma – Fibrinogen
Serum
Plasma proteins are:
➢_______
➢____________
➢___________
albumin
globulin (α, β, γ)
Fibrinogen
Normal values of the plasma proteins are:
➢Total proteins :____ g/dL (__to ___g/dL)
➢Serum albumin : ——- g/dL
➢Serum globulin : ——- g/dL
➢Fibrinogen : ——- g/dl
7.3; 6;9
4.7
2.3
0.3
albumin/globulin (A/G) ratio is an important indicator of some diseases involving ______ or ________ .
liver or kidney
Normal A/G ratio is ____ : ____. (____-_____)
2 : 1. (0.8-2.0)
PROPERTIES OF PLASMA PROTEINS
MOLECULAR WEIGHT:
Albumin : _____
Globulin : _______
Fibrinogen : _______
69,000
156,000
400,000
Functions of Plasma Proteins
ONCOTIC PRESSURE : Plasma proteins are responsible for the oncotic or osmotic pressure in the blood.
Osmotic pressure exerted by proteins in the plasma is called ___________ (oncotic) pressure it is about _______ mm Hg.
colloidal osmotic
25
SPECIFIC GRAVITY : Specific gravity of the plasma proteins is ________.
1.026
FUNCTIONS OF PLASMA PROTEINS
- ROLE IN COAGULATION OF BLOOD : ____________ is essential for the coagulation of blood.
- ROLE IN DEFENSE OF THE BODY: ____________ play an important role in the defense mechanism of the body by acting as ____________ (immune substances). These proteins are also
called ____________
Fibrinogen
Gamma globulins ; antibodies
immunoglobulins
FUNCTIONS OF PLASMA PROTEINS
- ROLE IN TRANSPORT : _________,_________,__________ are responsible for the transport of hormones. „
- ROLE IN MAINTENANCE OF OSMOTIC PRESSURE IN BLOOD :
Osmotic pressure exerted by the plasma proteins plays an important role in the exchange of various substances between
blood and the cells through ___________________
Albumin, alpha globulin and beta
globulin
capillary membrane
Functions of Plasma Proteins
ROLE IN REGULATION OF ACID-BASE BALANCE : Plasma proteins, particularly the _________ , play an important role in
regulating the acid base balance in the blood. They contribute ____%
of the buffering capacity of blood.
albumin ; 15%
Function of Plasma proteins
ROLE IN VISCOSITY OF BLOOD : Plasma proteins provide viscosity to the blood, which is important to maintain the blood pressure.
__________ provides maximum viscosity than the other plasma
proteins.
Albumin
Functions of Plasma Proteins
ROLE IN ERYTHROCYTE SEDIMENTATION RATE: ________ and ________ accelerate the tendency of ________ formation by the red blood cells.
Globulin
fibrinogen
rouleaux
Rouleaux formation is responsible for _______, which is an important diagnostic and prognostic tool.
ESR
Erythrocytes
Appearance:
- ________________ shape, which is suited for gas exchange.
The shape is flexible so that RBCs can
____________________________ , i.e.,
—————- .
biconcave disc
pass though the smallest blood vessels
capillaries.
RBCs was first describe by a Dutch Biologist , ———————— who used an early microscope in ———- to study the blood of _______
Unaware of this work, _________________ provided another microscopic
description in _______ . He described its precise structure and approximated their size as _________ times smaller than a fine grain of sand
Jan Swammerdam ;1658
frog ; Anton van Leeuwenhoek
1674 ; 25,000
Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells, RBCs)
Structure:
-Primary cell content is ________, the
protein that binds _______ and _________.
- has no ________ nor _________
hemoglobin ; oxygen ; carbondioxide.
nucleus ; mitochondria
Hemoglobin consists of :
————- and _____________
HBA : ______ and ———-
HBF: _______ and ________
globin and heme pigment
2α and 2β
2α and 2γ
Globin
- Consists of ________ and _______ subunits
- Each subunit binds to a ______ group
Two alpha; two beta
heme
HB content
At birth :_____ g/dL
After 3rd month : ____ g/dL
After 1 year :_____ g/dL
From puberty onwards : _____ to ____ g/dL
25; 20; 17
14 to 16
Heme Groups
Each heme group bears an atom of _____, which binds (reversibly or irreversibly ?) with _____ molecule of _________
iron
reversibly; one
oxygen
___________ competes with oxygen for heme binding with a much higher affinity.
Carbon monoxide
Carbon monoxide competes with oxygen for heme binding with a much (lower or higher?) affinity.
Higher
Problem: deoxygenate hemoglobin
Treatment: __________________
hyperbaric oxygen chamber
Oxyhemoglobin
- (bound with or free of?) oxygen
- _______ color
Deoxyhemoglobin
- (bound with or free of?) oxygen
- ________ color
Bound with; red
Free of ; dark red.
Carbaminohemoglobin
_____ % of carbon dioxide in the blood binds to the ______ part of hemoglobin,
which is called carbaminohemoglobin.
20
globin
DIFFERENT BLOOD INDICES
- Mean Corpuscular Volume (MCV) MCV is the __________________________ and it is expressed in __________________.
- Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin (MCH) MCH is the __________________________. It is expressed in _________________
- Mean Corpuscular Hemoglobin Concentration (MCHC) : MCHC is the __________________________.
average volume of a single RBC ; cubic microns (cu μ).
quantity or amount of hemoglobin present in one RBC ; micromicrogram or picogram (pg).
concentration of hemoglobin in
one RBC.
DIFFERENT BLOOD INDICES
MCV : Normal MCV is _____ cu μ ( ____ to _____ cu μ).
MCH: Normal value of MCH is ____ pg
(____ to ____ pg).
MCHC: Normal value of MCHC is _____% (_____% to ____%).
90; 78 to 90
30; 27 to 32
30; 30 to 38
A single RBC can be hyperchromic .
T/F
F
hypochromic. A
single RBC cannot be hyperchromic .
Color Index (CI) : Color index is the ratio between the ____________________ and the ____________________ in the blood.
Actually, it is the average ________________ in one cell of a patient compared to the average ____________________
percentage of hemoglobin ; percentage of RBCs
hemoglobin content
hemoglobin content
Functions of Erythrocytes
1) Primary Function
____________ from the _____ to ________
and _____________ from _______ to the _______
2) _________________
Transport oxygen ; lung ; tissue cells
carbon dioxide ; tissue cells ; lung
Buffer blood pH
Production of Erythrocytes
Hematopoiesis
refers to _______________________________.
Erythropoiesis
refers specifically to ___________________________.
whole blood cell production
red blood cell production
All blood cells, including red and white, are produced in ___________________.
On average, one ounce, or _____________
blood cells, are made each day
red bone marrow
100 billion
Hematopoiesis
-The red bone marrow is a network of ____________________ that borders on wide blood capillaries called __________.
As ______________ mature, they migrate through the (thin or thick?) walls of the
_________ to enter the blood
reticular connective tissue
blood sinusoids
hemocytoblasts ; thin
sinusoids
All of blood cells including red and white arise from the same type of stem cell, the ____________ or ____________
hematopoietic stem cell
hemocytoblast
Erythrocytes are produced throughout
whole life
T/F
T
Stage of erythropoesis
List the stages
Haemocytoblasts
Proerythroblast
Early normoblast
Intermediate normoblast
Late normoblast
Reticulocyte
Mature rbc
Stages of Erythropoesis; important event; staining
Proerythroblast
Early normoblast
Intermediate normoblast
Late normoblast
Reticulocyte
Mature rbc
Synthesis of hemoglobin starts; basophilic
Nucleoli disappear; basophilic
Hemoglobin starts appearing; polychromophilic
Nucleus disappears; acidophilic
Reticulum is formed.Cell enters capillary from site of production; Basophilic
(organelles remnant’s)
Reticulum disappears, Cell attains biconcavity ; Acidophilic
What stage of erythropoesis does the haemoglobin start appearing??
Intermediate
normoblast
What stage of erythropoesis does the haemoglobin start getting synthesized??
Proerythroblast
What stage of erythropoesis does the nucleus disappear
Late normoblast
What stage of erythropoesis does the nucleoli disappear
Early normoblast
Feedback Regulation of Erythropoiesis
- regulated by _____________ content.
renal oxygen content.
Erythropoietin, a __________ hormone,
produced by _______ cells in response to a decreased renal blood O2 content.
glycoprotein; renal cells
___________ stimulates erythrocyte
production in the red bone marrow.
Erythropoietin
A drop in renal blood oxygen level
can result from:
1) reduced numbers of red blood cells due to ____________ or excess ____________
2) reduced availability of oxygen to the
blood, as might occur at ____________ or
during ____________.
3) increased demands for oxygen (common in those who are engaged in ____________).
hemorrhage ; RBC destruction.
high altitudes ; pneumonia.
aerobic exercise
Ways to increase Red Blood Cell Count in Sports
Legal
raise RBC count by ___________________________
Illegal
use ___________,__________, or their
analogs
training athletes at high altitude
erythropoietin, androgen
Dietary Requirements for Erythropoiesis
List 3
Iron
Folic acid
vitamin B12
Dietary Requirements for Erythropoiesis
Iron Defieciecy will result in Iron
deficiency anemia ( _________ anemia))
Folic acid or vitamin B12 deficiency
(_____________ anemia)
Inability to absorb vitamin B12 as a
result of a lack of _______________________ (__________ anemia)
microcytic
megaloblastic
intrinsic factor from stomach secretions
Pernicious
READ UP IRON METABOLISM
• Total quantity of iron in the body is about ____ g.
• One gram of hemoglobin contains _____ of iron.
4 g.
3.34
Normally, 100 mL of blood contains ____ gm of hemoglobin and about ____ mg of iron (____ × ____).
15 gm
50 mg
(3.34 × 15).
Iron can also be lost during hemorrhage and blood donation. If 450 mL of blood is donated, about ______ mg of iron is lost.
225
So, if 100 mL of blood is lost from the body, there is a loss of about _____ mg of iron.
In females, during every menstrual cycle, about ____ mL of blood is lost by
which ____ mg of iron is lost.
50
50
25
The average life span of erythrocytes is
________
120 days.
Erythrocyte Disorders
Anemia
is a condition in which the blood has an
abnormally _____________ capacity.
low oxygen-carrying
Classification of anemia based on causes
1. ___________ anemia
2. ___________ Anemia
3. ___________ ___________
4. ___________ Anemia
- Blood loss anemia
- Aplastic Anemia
- Maturation failure
- Hemolytic Anemia
Classification of anemia based on causes
1. Blood loss anemia: due to haemorrhage, which can be acute (as in ____________ ) or chronic (as in ____________)
- Aplastic Anemia: Failure of ____________ to ____________
- Maturation failure: Due to deficiency of ____________, ____________ and ____________
deep matchet cut; heavy hookworm infestation
bone marrow ; produce RBCs
folic acid, Vit B12 and intrinsic factor
Classification of anemia based on causes
- Hemolytic Anemia: Due to excessive hemolysis of RBCs.
Can occur in patients with congenital ______________ ,___________ disease, ______________, heavy __________
parasitemia, ______________ reactions, ingestion of certain drugs and ____________________________
deficiency.
Spherocytosis ; sickle cell ; thalassemia
malaria ; transfusion
Glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase
deficiency.
ABNORMAL HEMOGLOBIN (2 TYPES)
Hemoglobinopathies :
Hemoglobinopathy is a genetic
disorder caused by abnormal _____________ of hemoglobin.
polypeptide chains
ABNORMAL HEMOGLOBIN (2 TYPES)
1. Hemoglobinopathies :
i. Hemoglobin _____
ii. Hemoglobin _____
iii. Hemoglobin _____
iv. Hemoglobin _____
Hemoglobin S
ii. Hemoglobin C
iii. Hemoglobin È
iv. Hemoglobin M
ABNORMAL HEMOGLOBIN (2 TYPES)
1. Hemoglobinopathies :
i. Hemoglobin S: It is found in _________ anemia. In this, the α- chains are _________, and β-chains are _________.
ii. Hemoglobin C: The _____-chains are abnormal , and it is characterized by _________ anemia and _________.
iii. Hemoglobin E: the _____-chains are abnormal. It is present in people with hemoglobin E disease.
iv. Hemoglobin M: It is the abnormal hemoglobin present in the form of _________ .
sickle cell ; normal ; abnormal.
β-; mild hemolytic anemia ; splenomegaly.
β-chains
methemoglobin
Hemoglobin M
It occurs due to mutation of genes of
______________ chains, resulting in abnormal replacement of amino acids (__________ syndrome in children).
both the α and β chains
Blue baby
Abnormal Hemoglobin (2Types)
2) Hemoglobin in Thalassemia and Related Disorders
In thalassemia, different types of abnormal hemoglobins are present. The polypeptide chains are ________,________, or __________.
decreased,
absent or abnormal
In α-thalassemia, the α-chains are _________,__________, or ________ and in β-thalassemia, the β-chains are ________,_________, or __________
decreased, absent or abnormal
decreased, absent or abnormal
Polycythemia
is an abnormal ______ of erythrocytes that increases the _______ of the blood, causing it to _________ or _________
excess
viscosity
sludge or flow sluggishly.
Common causes of polycythemia include:
1) _________________
2) A response to reduced availability of
oxygen at ____________
Bone marrow cancer
high altitudes
Shape of RBCs is altered in many conditions
- Crenation: ___________ as in ___________ conditions.
- Spherocytosis: ___________ form as in ___________ conditions.
- Elliptocytosis: ___________ shape as in certain types of anemia.
- Sickle cell: ___________ shape as in sickle cell anemia.
- Poikilocytosis: Unusual ___________ due to deformed ___________. The shape will be of flask, hammer or any other unusual shape
Shrinkage ; hypertonic
Globular ;hypotonic
Elliptical
Crescentic
shapes ; cell
membrane.
JAUNDICE
Jaundice (_________) is the _______ coloration of the _______ of the eyes (the _______ of the eyes), the _______ (not easy to see
in dark skinned people) the _______ and other tissues.
It is caused by the presence of excess _______ in the plasma and tissue fluids.
icterus; yellow
sclera ; white ; skin ; nail bed
biluribin
Jaundice
Normal bilirubin level in adult
plasma is ____ -_____ mg/dl (___-___ μmol/L).
It is detectable when plasma bilirubin is greater than ____mg/dl (_____ μmol/L)
0.3 -1.0 mg/dl
5-18 μmol/L
2 mg/dl
34 μmol/L
JAUNDICE
Excess bilirubin in the plasma can result from :
excessive breakdown of red blood cells (___________ jaundice)
failure of the liver to excrete bilirubin (_________ Jaundice)
obstruction to the bile ducts (____________ Jaundice)
hemolytic jaundice
Hepatic Jaundice
Obstructive Jaundice
JAUNDICE
Excess bilirubin in the plasma can result from :
_______________________ (hemolytic jaundice)
_____________________ (Hepatic Jaundice)
______________________ (Obstructive Jaundice)
excessive breakdown of red blood cells
failure of the liver to excrete bilirubin
obstruction to the bile ducts
Leukocytes are grouped into two major
categories:
Granulocytes
- contain specialized membrane-bound
____________
- include _________,__________, and __________
Agranulocytes
- lack ___________
- include ________ and _________
cytoplasmic granules
neutrophils, eosinophils, and
basophils.
obvious granules
lymphocytes and monocytes
Leukocytes (WBCs) Count
__________-_________/ L
4,000-11,000
Function of Leukocytes:
________ against diseases
Leukocytes form a ________ that
helps protect the body from damage by
bacteria, viruses, parasites, toxins and
tumor cells.
defense
mobile army
Leukocytes circulate in the blood for various length of time.
Life span
- ____________ to ____________ for the
majority
- ____________ for a few memory cells
several hours ; several days
many years
Neutrophils
- _____%-____\% WBCs
- Nucleus _______lobed (up to _______ lobes)
- Duration of development: _______
- Life Span: _______ to a _______
- About 12-14 μm in diameter
- Function: ______________
40%-70%
multilobed ;six lobes
6-9 days
6 hours to a few days
phagocytize bacteria
Eosinophils
- _____%-____% WBCs
- Nucleus _____lobed , its about 12-14 μm in diameter
- Development: _________
- Life Span: _________
- 1%-4% WBCs
bilobed
6-9 days
8-12 days
Function of Eosinophils
Function:
1) Kill ___________
2) destroy ___________ complexes
3) inactivate some ___________ of ___________
parasitic worms
antigen-antibody complexes
inflammatory chemical of allergy
Basophils
- ______% WBCs
- Do not always have a _____\ nucleus
- its about 10-12 μm in diameter
- Development: _____ days
- Life Span: ________ to _________
0.5%
lobed
3-7 days
a few hours ; a few days
Basophils
Function:
1) Release ________ and other mediators of ____________
2) contain ____________ , an _________
histamine ; inflammation
heparin ; anticoagulant
Lymphocytes
- ____ cells and ___ cells
- ____%-____% WBCs
-Principal ones are small (_____ μm in diameter) while the big ones found in tissues are about ____ μm in diameter)
- Nucleus _________ or ________
- Development: ______ to ______
- Life Span: _____ to _______
T cells and B cells
20%-45%
10; 20μm
spherical or indented
days to weeks
hours to years
Lymphocytes
Function
Mount _____________ by _________ (T cells) or via __________ (B cells)
immune response
direct cell attack
antibodies
Monocytes
- ____%-_____% WBCs
- Nucleus ____-shaped
- Development: ______days
- Life Span: _________
4%-8%
U-shaped
2-3 days
Largest of the circulating cells is the ???
Monocytes
Monocytes
- Function:
______________
develop into __________ in tissues
Phagocytosis
macrophages
Leukocytes are deployed in the infected areas outside blood vessels via 3 steps.
1) _____________
2) _____________
3) _____________
1) Margination
2) Diapedesis
3) chemotaxis
Margination of WBCs
__________ of the WBCs toward the
__________ during blood flow
Migration; endothelium
Diapedesis:
Leukocytes _____ of the ______________
slip out
capillary blood
vessels.
Chemotaxis Of WBCs:
Gather in large numbers at areas of tissue damage and infection by
following the __________________ released by ________ cells or other ________
chemical trail of molecules
damaged; leukocytes
Phagocytosis
To Destroy _________ or _________
foreign substances
dead cells
Leukocyte Disorders
Normal Leukocyte Count: _______ – _______/l
Leukopenia: _______/l normal leukocytes
Leukocytosis: _______ /l normal leukocytes
4,000 – 11,000/l
< 4,000
> 11,000
Leuko_______ is one major side effect of chemotherapy
penia
Why Leukopenia during chemotherapy?
- Cancerous cells grow (slow or fast?) , which distinguish themselves from most of normal cells.
- Chemotherapy is designed to ________________ by interrupting ____________.
- Chemotherapy also kills a few _____________ cells including:
_______,________,_________
fast
kill fast-growing cells ; mitotic cell division.
normal fast-growing
leukocytes
hair
intestinal epithelial cells
Leukemia
- Leukemia refers to a group of ________ of ______ blood cells.
- extraordinarily ______ number of abnormal (cancerous) leukocytes
cancerous conditions; white
High
Human Blood Groups
- were learned from tragedies (death)
caused by _______ during ————
in ancient times.
mismatch; transfusion
ABO blood types were identified in
_________ by ______ (1930 Nobel
laureate).
- Other blood types were identified later.
1900; Karl Landstein
Blood type is determined by ???
Agglutinogens
Agglutinogens
• are specific ___________ on ____________
glycoproteins
red blood cell membranes.
All RBCs in an individual carry the
same specific type of agglutinogens.
T/F
T
ABO Blood Groups
Type A: RBCs carry agglutinogen ____.
Type B: RBCs carry agglutinogen _____.
Type O: RBCs carry ________ agglutinogens.
Type AB: RBCs carry ______ agglutinogens
A
B
no A nor B
both A and B
Type A blood
RBCs carry type _______ agglutinogens.
_______ contain preformed antibodies,
__________ , against _____ aagglutinogens.
A
Plasma
Agglutinin B
B
Agglutinins
- are _________ in plasma
- bind to __________ that are not carried
by host RBCs
- cause ___________
preformed antibodies
agglutinogens
agglutination
Agglutination
__________ and ___________ of incompatible RBCs.
aggregation and lysis
Type B blood
-RBCs carry type ____ agglutinogens.
- Plasma contains agglutinin against __________
B
A
agglutinogens.
Type O blood
RBCs carry ____________ agglutinogens.
Plasma contains agglutinin against __________________.
The person can accept only type ______
blood transfusion.
neither type A nor type B
both A and B agglutinogens
O
Type AB blood
Agglutinogen(s) ?
Agglutinin(s) ?
A and B
None
Agglutinogen is on _______
Agglutinin is in ????
Rbc
Plasma
Blood type ; Agglutinogen ; agglutinin
Type A
Type B
Type O
Type AB
A ; B
B; A
None; A and B
A and B; none
Rh Blood Groups
Rh posituve
- RBCs contain ___________.
Rh agglutinogens
About ____ per cent of all white people are Rh positive and ____ per cent, Rh negative.
In American blacks, the percentage of Rh-positives is about ______, whereas in African blacks, it is virtually _____ per cent.
85; 15
95; 100
Rh negative
- The RBCs contain ______________.
- Agglutinins against Rh-positive RBCs are produced ________________
no Rh agglutinogens
After Rh-negative blood sees Rhpositive RBCs.
The problem with a Rh-negative mother and her Rh-positive fetus
First Pregnancy: Protected by the
_______________ , the mother is not
exposed to Rh agglutinogens until the time of _______ due to ___________
Leading to Generation of ____________
Leading to ________ of the second pregnancy
placenta-blood barrier; childbirth
placental tearing; antiRh agglutinins
Haemolytic disease of the newborn
Treatment for Hemolytic disease of the newborn:
use ______________ to mask Rh agglutinogens
anti-Rh globulin
STATISTICS ON HEMOLYTIC DISEASE OF NEW BORN
• There is a 1 in _____ chance of rhesus iso-immuniztion during the first preganancy
• 1 in ____ during the second and 3rd pregnancy
• 1 in _____ during the 4th pregnancy and
• 1 in ____ during the 5th pregnancy
143
14
12
8
The overall incidence of hemolytic disease of the newborn
is about 1 in ______ of all pregnancies.
200
There is no risk of rhesus iso-immunization if ___________ are Rhesus negative or are Rhesus Postive or if a ___________ man marries a __________ woman.
The problem is with a ___________ man married with a __________ woman.
However with hyperimmune drugs
saftey can be assured
both couples
Rh negative ; Rhesus postive
Rhesus Positive ; Rhesus –ve
Hemostasis refers to the ______________
stoppage of bleeding.
Steps involved in Hemostasis
➢ ____________.
➢Formation of __________ .
➢Formation of __________ and __________.
➢Growth of __________ into the clot to form a permanent seal at the point of vessel damage.
➢Removal of ____________________
➢Repair of blood vessel __________.
Vascular Spasm.
platelet plug.
blood clot ; clot retraction.
fibrous tissue
excess fibrous tissue.
endothelium.
Platelets are cells
T/F
F
Platelets are not cells but cytoplasmic fragments of extraordinarily large
called megakaryocytes.
Normal Platelet Count:
________ – _________/
130,000
400,000
Function of Platelets
•Secrete _________ that cause vascular
spasms in broken vessels
•)Form ____________ to stop bleeding
•) Secrete chemicals that attract ________ and _________ to sites of inflammation
•) Secrete ________ that stimulate mitosis in ___________ and ___________ and help maintain the linings of blood vessels
•)Dissolve ________ that have outlast their usefulness
vasoconstrictors
temporary platelet plugs
neutrophils and monocytes
growth factors ; fibroblasts ; smooth muscle
blood clots
Coagulation (Clotting)
-Many clotting factors in ________ are involved in
clotting.
-These factors are
(active or inactive?) in the blood.
plasma
Inactive
Clotting factors are activated when:
1) __________________ , or
2) _________________
blood vessel is broken
blood flow slows down.
CLOTTING FACTORS
Factor I- ___________
Factor II- ___________
Factor III - ___________
Factor IV - ___________
Factor V- ___________ (___________)
Factor VII - ___________
Factor VIII - ___________
Factor IX - ___________ (or ___________ component).
Factor X- ___________ factor
Factor XI - ___________
Factor XII - ___________ Factor
Factor XIII - ___________ factor
Factor I- Fibrinogen
Factor II- Prothrombin
Factor III - Tissue Thromboplastin
Factor IV - Calcium ions
Factor V- Labile factor (Proaccelerin)
Factor VII - Stable factor
Factor VIII - Antihaemophilic factor
Factor IX - Christmas Factor (or Plasma
thromboplastin component).
Factor X- Stuart-Prower factor
Factor XI - Plasma thromboplastin antecedent
Factor XII - Hageman Factor
Factor XIII - Fibrin stabilizing factor
Mnemonic for clotting factors
Freshers
Party
Tonight
Come
Let’s
Sing
And
Clap
Some
PHat
Fucking ass
You are welcome 🖤
STEPS INVOLVED IN BLOOD CLOTTING
Formation of ___________
Both the Extrinsic and Intrinsic Pathway tends to arrive at the formation of _________ (__________ activator)
Conversion of __________ to _________
Conversion of ___________ to _________
thromboplastin
Thromboplastin
Prothrombin
prothrombin to Thrombin
fibrinogen to fibrin
The sequential activation (reaction
cascade) of the clotting factors finally leads to the formation of _______________
Blood cells are _______ in this to form a
___________.
fibrin meshwork.
trapped; hard clot
Coagulation Disorders
Thrombosis is the ___________________.
Thrombus is a ____________________.
Embolus is a ———————————-.
Embolism is the __________________.
Infarction refers to __________ that results from _________.
abnormal clotting of blood in an unbroken vessel
clot that attaches to the wall of blood vessel
clot that comes off the wall of blood
vessel and travel in the blood stream
blockage of blood flow by an embolus that lodges in a small blood vessel
cell death; embolism
__________ is responsible for most strokes and heart attacks.
Infarction
Bleeding Disorders
1) Thrombocytopenia
- the number of _________ is _________
(___________ /l ) - causes ____________ from small blood vessels all over the body
2) Deficiency of clotting factors due to impaired ______ function (______ Deficiency) “______,______,_______,_______, and __________
circulating platelets; deficient; <50,000
spontaneous bleeding
liver; Vit K
Prothrombin, Factor VII,
IX, X and protein c.
Bleeding Disorders
3) Hemophilias
Hereditary bleeding disorders due to deficiency of __________ in 85% of people and _________ in 15%.
It occurs in (Males or Females?) while (males or females?) are carriers but never
manifest the disease.
clotting factor VIII
factor IX
Males; Females
Acids are constantly produced in the body.
T/F
T
PH is the measure of ———- or _________ in a given solution.
It is given by the _____
concentration.
acidity or alkalinity
H ion
The body pH varies for arterial blood (~______ ±0.02) and in venous blood is ~______ ± 0.02.
Reference PH for the body is _______
7.45; 7.35
7.4
Increase body H ion concentration is _________ and decrease is ________.
acidosis; alkalosis
Types of acids produced
Volatile acids: are derived from ________ .
Large quantity of ________ is produced during the metabolism of ________
and ________. This ________ is not a threat because it is almost totally removed through ________ by ________.
CO2
CO2 ; carbohydrates ; lipids.
CO2; expired air ; lungs.
Types of acids produced
Non-volatile Acids: are produced during the metabolismof other nutritive substances such as ________. These
acids are real threat to the acid-base status of the body.
For example, _________ is produced during the metabolism of sulfur containing amino acids such as
________ and _________
proteins
sulfuric acid
cysteine ; metheonine
COMPENSATORY MECHANISM
There are three primary systems that regulate the H+
concentration in the body fluids to prevent acidosis or
alkalosis:
(1) the _________________ systems of the body fluids, which immediately combine with acid or base to prevent excessive changes in H+ concentration;
(2) the __________ center (_________ buffering system) and which regulates the removal of ______ (and,
therefore, _________) from the extracellular fluid
(3)the ________ (_______ buffering system), which can excrete either ______ or ____________, thereby readjusting the extracellular fluid H+ concentration
toward normal during acidosis or alkalosis.
chemical acid-base
respiratory ; Respiratory ;CO2 ; H2C03
kidneys ;Renal ; acid or alkaline urine
• A buffer is any substance that can ___________________. It prevent rapid changes in pH
reversibly bind H ion
• Types of Buffer Systems
Body fluids have three types of buffer systems, which act under different conditions:
1. _________ buffer system
2. __________ buffer system
3. _________ buffer system.
Bicarbonate buffer system
2. Phosphate buffer system
3. Protein buffer system.
Bicarbonate Buffer System
Bicarbonate buffer system is present in _______ (plasma).
It consists of the protonated
substance, ________(_______) which is a _______ and the unprotonated substance, _________ , which is a _________.
ECF
carbonic acid; H2CO3; weak acid
HCO3–; weak base.
Bicarbonate buffer system
HCO3– is in the form of
_____ , i.e. ________ (_______).
salt
sodium bicarbonate
NaHCO3
Bicarbonate Buffer System
H2C03 is formed in the body by the reaction of _______ and _______, with the enzyme , ____________
CO2 with H2O
Carbonic anhydrase
Bicarbonate buffer system
The second component of the system,
bicarbonate salt, occurs predominantly as _________ (_______) in the extracellular fluid.
sodium bicarbonate; NaHCO3
Bicarbonate buffer system
NaHCO3 ionizes almost
completely to form ________ and ———
HCO3- and Na+
In the presence of strong acid like HCl;
HCO3ˉ + HCl ———-> ________ + _____
In the presence of strong base like NaOH
NaOH + H2CO3 ———-> _______ + _______
H2CO3; Clˉ
NaHCO3; H2O.
_________ is the most important and abundant ECF buffer
Bicarbonate bigger system
Phosphate buffers
Conc. in ECF is (low or high), about ___% that of HCO3
Not significant in ____ but in ______ , especially ________ and ____________
low ; 8%
ECF ; ICF ; renal tubules ; red blood cells
When a strong acid like hydrochloric acid is mixed with a fluid containing phosphate buffer, ___________________ ( ____________– weak acid) is formed.
sodium dihydrogen phosphate
NaH2PO4
If a strong base such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is added to the fluid containing phosphate buffer, a weak
base called _____________ ( __________ ) is
formed.
disodium hydrogen phosphate
Na2HPO4
In the red blood cells, the (sodium or potassium?) ion concentration is higher than the (sodium or potassium ?)ion concentration.
So, the elements of phosphate buffer inside the red blood cells
are in the form of _____________
( __________) and _____________
(__________)
Potassium; sodium
potassium dihydrogen phosphate
KH2PO4
dipotassium hydrogen phosphate
K2HPO4
Protein Buffer
Protein buffer systems are present in the blood; both in the ________ and _________
the plasma and erythrocytes.
Protein buffer systems in plasma
Elements of proteins, which form the weak acids in the plasma are:
• i. ________________ group, ________________ group
and side-chain ________________ group of ________________
• ii. Side-chain _________ group of __________
• iii. ____________ group of ____________.
C-terminal carboxyl group, N-terminal amino group , side-chain carboxyl group of glutamic acid
amino group ; lysine
Imidazole ;histidine.
Protein buffer systems in plasma are more powerful because of their ______________ in plasma and
because of their pK being very close to _____
high concentration
7.4
Protein buffer system in erythrocytes (Hemoglobin)
Due to its high concentration
than the plasma proteins, hemoglobin has about ______ times more buffering capacity than the plasma
proteins.
six
_____________ is the most effective protein buffer
_________ is the major buffer in blood.
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin.
The _______genated hemoglobin is a more powerful buffer than ______genated hemoglobin because of the higher pK.
deoxy
oxy
When a hemoglobin molecule becomes
deoxygenated in the capillaries, it easily _________, which are released when _____ enters the capillaries.
binds with H+
CO2
IMMUNE SYSTEM
Immunity can be defined as the body’s ability to _______________________ in the initiation of disease
processes.
defend against specific pathogens and/or foreign substances
TYPES OF IMMUNITY
Immunity is of two types:
• I. _________ immunity.
• II. ___________ immunity
Innate
Acquired
• Innate immunity, the body’s ______ line of defense, occurs (early or late?) and (more or less?) rapidly in response to foreign substances.
It is otherwise called the ________ or __________ immunity
first
Early ; more
natural or non-specific
EXAMPLES OF INNATE IMMUNE PROCESSES IN MAN
- _____________ of bacteria and other invaders by white blood cells and cells of the tissue macrophage system.
- Destruction of swallowed organisms by the _____________ of the stomach and the digestive enzymes.
- Resistance of the skin to invasion by
organisms.
Phagocytosis
acid secretions
More innate immune response in man
certain chemical compounds in the blood that attach to foreign organisms or toxins and destroy them. Some of
these compounds are
(1) ___________
(2) __________, which react with and inactivate certain types of gram-positive bacteria;
(3) the _____________ that is described later,
a system of about 20 proteins that can be activated in
various ways to destroy bacteria; and
(4) _______________ that can recognize
and destroy foreign cells, tumor cells, and even some infected cells
lysozyme
basic polypeptides
complement complex
natural killer lymphocytes
Acquired immunity
• This is the type of immunity is ___________ in the organism’s body.
It appears after _____________ to certain foreign organism or toxins that provoke its formation/ production of the
immune agent
• This type of immunity is also known as _________ immunity
not present naturally
organism has been exposed
specific
(Acquired or Innate?) immunity is the most powerful immune
mechanism for protection.
Acquired
___________ are responsible for acquired immunity
Lymphocytes
Types of Acquired Immunity
Two types of acquired immunity develop in the body:
• 1. ________ immunity
• 2. ___________ immunity
Cellular immunity
Humoral immunity (
Two types of acquired immunity develop in the body:
• 1. Cellular immunity (mediated by _______________)
• 2. Humoral immunity (involves production of _________ mediated by _____________)
T-lymphocytes
antibodies ; B-lymphocytes
CYTOKINES
• Cytokines are hormone like ___________ that affect immune response.
•They can be secreted by _________, ___________ and in some instances
____________ cells, neurons, glial cells, and other types of cells .
chemical messengers
lymphocytes ; macrophages
endothelial cells
A convention exist that once the amino acid sequence of a factor in human is known its name is changed to
_____________. Thus the name of B cell differentiation factor was changed to _______________
interleukin (IL)
interleukin 4
The interleukins are usually numbered
sequentially in Arabic numerals and most of the principal cytokines are numbered _______ to _______ e.t.c
IL-1 to
IL-13
Other cytokines that do not fit into this
Sequential Arabic numbering are ____________,___________, and ____________ .
Some of them have ______ or ————
subtypes
Tumour Necrotic Factor (TNF),
interferon, and Transforming Growth Factor (TGF)
alpha or Beta
ANTIGEN-PRESENTING CELLS
Antigen-presenting cells are the special type of cells in the body, which induce the ———————- from __________ and later present these materials to the _______________s.
release of antigenic materials
invading organisms
helper T cell
Types of Antigen-Presenting Cells
Antigen-presenting cells are of three types
- Macrophages: Macrophages are the (small or large?) ________ cells, which ______ the invading organisms to release
the antigen.
The macrophages are present along with
___________ in almost all the lymphoid tissues
Large; phagocytic
digest
lymphocytes
Types of Antigen-Presenting Cells
Antigen-presenting cells are of three types
List them
- Macrophages
- Dendritic cells
- B-lymphocytes
Types of Antigen-Presenting Cells
Dendritic Cells: Dendritic cells are (phagocytic or nonphagocytic?) in nature.
Based on the location, dendritic cells are classified into three
categories:
i. Dendritic cells of ________, which trap the antigen in ________.
ii. _________ dendritic cells in ________, which trap the
antigen in the ________.
iii. _________ dendritic cells in _____, which trap the organisms coming in contact with _____________.
nonphagocytic
spleen ; blood.
Follicular ; lymph nodes ; lymph.
Langerhans ; skin ; body surface.
Types of Antigen-Presenting Cells
B Lymphocytes : B lymphocytes also act as antigen-presenting
cells.
Thus, the B cells function as both antigen-_________ cells and antigen ———— cells.
presenting; receiving
However, ________ are the least
efficient antigen presenting cells and need to be activated by ————-
B cells
helper T cells.
Role of Antigen-presenting Cells
Invading foreign organisms are either _____________ by ________
through phagocytosis or _________ by __________. The antigen from these organisms is _______ into ————- products.
These antigenic peptide products move towards the ________ of the antigen-presenting cells and bind with _______________.
engulfed by macrophages ; trapped by dendritic cells
Digested; small peptide ; surface
human leukocyte antigen (HLA).
HLA is a genetic matter present in the molecule of ______________ , which is situated on the ______ of the antigen-presenting cells.
class II major histocompatibility complex (MHC)
surface
MHC and HLA
Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is a (small or large?) molecule present in the _____ arm of chromosome _____.
It is made up of a group of genes which are involved in immune system. It has
more than _______ genes including HLA genes.
Large; short; 6
200
MHC molecules in
human beings are divided into two types:
- Class I MHC molecule: It is found in _______ cell in human body. It is specifically responsible for presentation of __________ antigens to __________ cells.
- Class II MHC molecule: It is found on ____________,________,____________ . It is responsible for presenting
the __________ antigens to ________cells.
every; endogenous ; cytotoxic T
B cells, macrophages and
other antigen-presenting cells
exogenous; helper T
Presentation of Antigen
Antigen presentation
- _________ cell recognizes the antigen displayed on the surface of the APC with the help of its own surface receptor protein called _____________ .
- This initiates a complex interaction between the ___________ & the ________ which activates __________ cells.
- At the same time, macrophages (the APC’s) release __________, which facilitates the activation & proliferation of _________ cells.
- ______________ cells proliferate and enter the circulation for further actions
- Simultaneously, the antigen which is bound to class _____ MHC molecules activates the ______ cells also,
resulting in the development of ________immunity
Helper T ; T cell receptor.
helper T cell receptor ; the antigen
interleukin-1 ; helper T cells.
Activated helper T cells
class II MHC ; B cells ; humoral immunity
Cellullar immunity
• Cellular immunity is mediated by ___________ (_______- dependent lymphocytes).
T-lymphocytes
thymus
During the processing of T-lymphocytes in the _______, each lymphocyte develops specific reactivity against _____
antigen until there are different thymic lymphocytes with specific reactivity against literally ______ of
different antigens
thymus; one; millions
Each T cell has _________ of receptor molecules on its surface and ________ bind with these receptors in the
same way they bind with antibodies.
thousands
antigens
T-lyhmpocytes that are processed in the _________ are _________ to ensure that the T-lymphocytes eventually released into the circulation do not ___________________.
thymus
screened
react with the bodies own tissues
• The T lymphocytes that fail the screening test by reactivity with the body’s own tissues are _________ and __________ instead of being
released. About _____% are destroyed in this process.
destroyed
phagocytized
90
Types of T-cells
There are four types of T-Cells
1. __________ cells
2. __________ or __________ cells
3. __________ cells
4. __________ cells
Helper T cells
2. Cytotoxic or Killer T cells
3. Suppressor T cells
4. Memory T cells
ROLE OF HELPER T CELLS
• Helper T cells (CD4 cells) which enter the circulation , help to ________ all the ____________ and _________ .
Normal, CD4 count in healthy adults varies between ______ and ______ per cubic millimeter of blood.
activate
other T cells and B cells
500 ; 1500
Helper T cells are of two types:
List them
Helper-1 (TH1) cells
Helper-2 (TH2) cells
Helper T cells are of two types:
Helper-1 (TH1) cells: TH1 cells are concerned with ______ immunity and secrete _________ and _____________.
Helper-2 (TH2) cells:TH2 cells are concerned with ________ immunity and secrete ________ and __________
cellular immunity ; interleukin -2 ; Gamma Interferon.
humoral immunity ;interleukin-
4 ; interleukin-5.
ROLE OF CYTOTOXIC T CELLS
Cytotoxic T cells, activated by _________ cells, circulate in the blood, lymph and lymphatic tissues to _______ the
invading organisms by attacking them (directly or indirectly ?)
helper T
destroy
Directly
Other Actions of Cytotoxic T Cells
- Cytotoxic T cells also destroy ———- cells, __________ cells
- Cytotoxic T cells destroy even the body’s ____________________________,
particularly _________.
cancer
transplanted
own tissues which are affected by foreign bodies
viruses
ROLE OF SUPPRESSOR T CELLS
Suppressor T cells are also called ___________ cells. These T cells ________ the activities of the _________ cells.
Thus, the suppressor T cells play an
important role in preventing the ______ cells from _____________________________.
regulatory T cells
killer T cells ; killer T cells
destroying the body’s own tissues along
with invaded organisms
Suppressor cells suppress the activities of helper T cells
T/F
T
ROLE OF MEMORY T CELLS
Some of the T cells activated by an antigen do not _____________________ but remain in ____________. These T cells are called memory T cells.
In later periods, the memory cells migrate to various lymphoid tissues throughout the body.
When the body is exposed to the same organism for the second time.
enter the circulation
lymphoid tissue
DEVELOPMENT OF HUMORAL IMMUNITY
Humoral immunity is defined as the immunity mediated by _________, which are secreted by __________.
antibodies
B lymphocytes.
B lymphocytes secrete the
antibodies into the ______ and _______.
blood and lymph
___________ are the _______ globulins produced by B lymphocytes.
Antibodies
gamma
ANTIBODIES OR IMMUNOGLOBULINS
• Antibody is ___________ in nature, and it is also called ________________
gamma globulin
immunoglobulin (Ig).
Types of Antibodies : Five types of antibodies are identified:
1. Ig___ (Ig ______ )
2. Ig___ (Ig ______)
3. Ig___ (Ig ______)
4. Ig___ (Ig ______)
5. Ig___ (Ig ______).
- IgA (Ig alpha)
- IgD (Ig delta)
- IgE (Ig epsilon)
- IgG (Ig gamma)
- IgM (Ig mu).
IgG forms ______% of the antibodies in the
body
75
Functions of Different Antibodies
1. IgA plays a role in localized defense mechanisms in _____________ like _______.
2. IgD is involved in _____________ by B lymphocytes
3. IgE is involved in ________ reactions
4. IgG is responsible for ______________
5. IgM is also responsible for ______________
external secretions ; tears.
recognition of the antigen
allergic reactions
complement fixation
complement fixation
most antitoxins and antibodies belong to this class (Ig___)
blood group antibodies anti-A and Anti-B belongs to the Ig___ class)
G
M
Passive Natural Immunization
Passive natural immunization is acquired from the _____________________.
Before birth, immunity is transferred from the mother to the fetus in the form of __________ antibodies (mainly Ig____) through the ________.
After birth, the antibodies (Ig___) are transferred through _________.
mother before and after birth.
maternal antibodies ; IgG
placenta.
(IgA) ; breast milk.
Passive Artificial Immunization
• Passive artificial immunization is developed by injecting ______________ antibodies using _______ from humans
or animals.
previously prepared
serum
• The serum containing the antibody ( _________ ) is administered to people who have developed the disease
( ____________ ).
• This type of immunity is useful for providing immediate protection against (acute or chronic?) infections like ________,_________,__________ , etc. and for ________ by insects, snakes and
venom from other animals.
antiserum; therapeutic
Acute
tetanus, measles, diphtheria
poisoning
Active Artificial Immunization
• Active artificial immunization is a type of immunization achieved by the administration of ________ or _________.
vaccines or toxoids
Vaccines : is a substance that is introduced into the body to prevent the disease produced by certain pathogens.
Vaccine consists of ______ pathogens or _________________ organisms.
dead
live but attenuated (artificially weakened)
___________ produced the first live vaccine. He produced the vaccine for ———- from ________ virus.
Edward Jenner
smallpox; cowpox
Toxoids
• Toxoid is a substance which is normally _______ and has been processed to _____________ but retains its capacity to _________________________ by immune
system.
toxic ; destroy its toxicity
induce antibody production
IMMUNE DEFICIENCY DISEASES
CONGENITAL IMMUNE DEFICIENCY DISEASES
Congenital diseases are inherited and occur due to defects in B cells or T cells or both.
The common examples are ________ (due to ___________ ) and _____________ (due to _________ or the ____________\).
DiGeorge syndrome
absence of thymus
severe combined immune deficiency
lymphopenia; absence of
lymphoid tissue
ACQUIRED IMMUNE DEFICIENCY DISEASES
• This occurs due to infection by some organisms. The most common disease of this type is _______________, which is an infectious disease caused by _________________
acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)
immune deficiency virus (HIV).
A person is diagnosed with AIDS when the CD4 count is below ______ cells per cubic millimeter of blood.
Infection occurs when a ________ from HIV binds to ________ receptors of ________,_________,________, and __________ leading to the destruction of these cells.
It causes a slow progressive decrease in immune function, resulting in
opportunistic infections of various types
200
glycoprotein; surface
T lymphocytes, monocytes,
macrophages and dendritic cells
AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES
• Autoimmune disease is defined as a condition in which the immune system mistakenly ______________. Normally, an antigen induces the immune response in the body but the body has the
___________ against ____________.
• However, in some occasions, the ________ fails or becomes incomplete against ____________. This state
is called autoimmunity
attacks body’s cells and tissues.
tolerance ; self-antigen.
tolerance ; self-antigen.
COMMON AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES
List 5
COMMON AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES
1. Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus
2. Myasthenia gravis
3. Hashimoto thyroiditis
4. Graves disease
5. Rheumatoid arthriti
ALLERGY AND IMMUNOLOGICAL
HYPERSENSITIVITY REACTIONS
• The term allergy means ___________. It is defined as an abnormal __________ to a chemical or physical agent (allergen).
• During the first exposure to an allergen, the immune response does __________________________ but another subsequent exposure to the
allergen causes ______________________.
These responses are called allergic reactions or immunological hypersensitivity reactions
hypersensitivity ; immune response
not normally produce any reaction in
the body
a variety of inflammatory responses.
Immunological hypersensitivity reactions may be ________ or _________ . These reactions are mediated mostly by _________.
innate or acquired
antibodies
Common immunological hypersensitivity reaction symptoms include _________,_________, and ________
sneezing, itching and skin
rashes.
Common allergic conditions are:
1. _______ allergy
2. Allergic _______
3. ________ _______
4. ___________
- Food allergy
- Allergic rhinitis
- Bronchial asthma
- Urticaria
Hypersensitive reactions are classified into five
types:
• Type I or _______________ reactions.
• Type II or _______________ reactions.
• Type III or _______________ reactions.
• Type IV or _______________ reactions.
• Type V or _______________ reactions
• Type I or anaphylactic reactions.
• Type II or cytotoxic reactions.
• Type III or antibody-mediated reactions.
• Type IV or cell-mediated reactions.
• Type V or stimulatory/blocking reactions
