Blood

Question 1

Erythrocytes

Answer 1

-(RBC - 5x10¹²/L of blood)
-Normal life span is 100-120 days until macrophages and spleen remove and break it down into bilirubin being an end product
-non-nucleated biconcave cells
-Cytoplasmic proteins:
-Hemoglobin:
-glycolytic enzymes:
- carbonic anhydrase: helps in exchange of O2 and CO2

Question 2

Describe plasma

Answer 2

-about 92% water
-7% proteins that are produced by the liver
-albumin, α-globulins and β-globulin, Coagulation proteins, Immunoglobulins, Complement proteins:
- 1% dissolved ions

Question 3

Albumin

Answer 3

Major source = liver
example/function: main component of plasma, oncotic pressure; (form of osmotic pressure induced by proteins) binding of various substances

Question 4

α-globulins and β-globulins:

Answer 4

Major source = liver
example/function: hormone binding proteins and the iron carrier protein transferrin, as well as heme proteins found in RBC

Question 5

Coagulation proteins: (examples)

Answer 5

Major source = liver
example /functions: plasminogen, prothrombin, antithrombin III, and fibrinogen → blood clotting proteins/put things into lumps

Question 6

Immunoglobulins

Answer 6

Major source = lymphoid tissue
example/functions: host defense reactions, important for the immune system

Question 7

Complement proteins:

Answer 7

Major source = liver
example/functions: host defense reactions and go hand in hand with immunoglobulins

Question 8

Hemoglobin

Answer 8

hemoglobin has an α and β chain

Question 9

Glycolytic enzymes

Answer 9

glycolysis is needed for energy production since there is no mitochondria

Question 10

Carbonic anhydrase

Answer 10

helps in exchange of O2 and CO2 (required for the breakdown into water)

Question 11

what are the types of tests that can be done to measure red blood cells? and what are they?

Answer 11

1. hemoglobin concentration: (Hb): how much O2 can bind
2. Hematocrit (Hct) or packed cell volume (PCV): the total number of RBC/volume

Question 12

Anemia

Answer 12

a general term but can mean too little RBCs, low hematocrit or hemoglobin and can be caused by many things

Question 13

Polycythemia:

Answer 13

too many RBCs

Question 14

What are the different blood types and who can give to who

Answer 14

-Type A has type A agglutinogen (antigen) and anti-B agglutinins (antibody for B) → receives from A and O
-Type B has type B agglutination and anti-A agglutinins → receives from B and O
-Type AB has both A&B agglutinogen and neither Anti-A or anti-B agglutinin → universal recipient
-Type O has neither agglutinogen but BOTH agglutinins → universal donor and can only receive O
Rh Factor (either have the protein or you don’t)
+ has the D antigen (about 85%) → can get blood from someone who is + or -
- does not have the D antigen and can only get - blood

**picture for who can give to who

Question 15

Neutrophils

Answer 15

Relative abundance: 50-70%
Characteristics: multilobed nucleus, cytoplasmic granules containing antibacterial, digestive and proinflammatory agents
Major Function: Ingest and destroy invading microorganisms, coordination of the early phase of acute inflammation, 1st to respond when exposed

Question 16

Eosinophils:

Answer 16

Relative abundance: 5%
Characteristics: acidophilic granules in cytoplasm
Major Functions: Phagocytic, especially against parasitic infection and sometimes allergic reaction

Question 17

Basophils:

Answer 17

Relative abundance: 0.5%
Characteristics: Basophilic granules in cytoplasm; contents include histamine
Major Functions: Migrate to tissues to become mast cells; release of histamine (causes inflammation), degradation is a key feature in allergic reactions mediated by immunoglobulin E

Question 18

Monocytes:

Answer 18

Relative abundance: 1-5%
Characteristics: Large cells with numerous small lysosomes in the cytoplasm
Major Functions: Respond chemotactically to invading microorganisms and sites of inflammation, part of a cell network =, called the monocyte-macrophage system; called macrophages when they are outside the vascular system, engulf things and are a general marker (work with neutrophils)

Question 19

Lymphocytes:

Answer 19

Relative abundance: 20-40%
Characteristics: Small cells with variable morphology
Major Functions: Generate specific immune responses, B-cells become plasma cells and secrete antibodies, mediating humoral immunity, T-cells provide cell-mediated immunity (destroy virally infected cells)

Question 20

Leukocytes

Answer 20

-(WBC - 5x10⁹/L of blood)
-relative abundance Neutrophils, lymphocytes, Monocytes, Eosinophils, basophils

Question 21

Thrombocytes:

Answer 21

-(platelets 300x10⁹/L blood)
-cell fragments involved in the clotting process
-Characteristics:
Small fragments of cells
No nucleus
Shape can change when activated
-Functions to stop bleeding

Question 22

Describe Hematopoiesis

Answer 22

look at picture

Question 23

Erythropoiesis

Answer 23

-Erythropoietin: a hormone released from the kidney (maintain Homeostasis) that decreases O2
-Requirements for RBCs to mature
iron , folic acid, Vitamin B 12
A deficiency will affect the development
Process
-Erythroblast is the maturing cell in the bone marrow, cells decrease in size
-Hemoglobin is produced
-Organelles decrease and eventually disappear
-Nucleus condenses and disappears
-Reticulocytes are the final product (and then released into to blood stream as erythrocytes

Question 24

Thrombopoiesis

Answer 24

-Platelet production
-Cell fragments from megakaryocytes
-Regulated by thrombopoietin (TPO)
-Cytokine: platelets are inflammatory market during acute inflammation
-Secreted by the liver and kidneys
-Platelets remove TPO – thrombopoietin can remove platelets (feedback loops)

Question 25

Leukopoiesis:

Answer 25

-general for WBS by lymphopoiesis is just for lymphocytes
-Only primitive precursor cells are produced in bone marrow
-Controlled by colony stimulating factors
-Differentiated of lymphocytes occurs during immune responses
-T-cells in thymus
-B-cells in lymph nodes
Myelopoiesis:
-Formation of non-lymphoid WBC in bone marrow
-Granular WBCs are neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils
-Monocytes

Question 26

White blood cells CBC values

Answer 26

5-10x10⁹
-too many could signal infection

Question 27

Platelet CBC values

Answer 27

• 140-400 k/uL¹³ (can create clots normally)
  -Too many = hypercoagulation
  -Too little = hypocoaggulation

Question 28

Hemoglobin: CBC values

Answer 28

Male: 14-17.4 g/dL¹³
Females: 12-16g/dL¹³ (lose blood every month)

Question 29

Hematocrit CBC values

Answer 29

Male 42-52%
Female 37-47%

Question 30

Hemostasis:

Answer 30

stop the bleeding (preventing hemorrhage)

• 1st is vasoconstriction: the vessels will constrict to prevent too much blood flow

    -Serotonin and Thromboxane A₂ are released from platelets (tissue will call for platelets) 
     -Endothelin-1 released by endothelial cells that are stimulated by thrombin (part of the platelets)

• 2nd platelet plug formation: all platelets aggregate to for a plug that is not permanent

      -Primary hemostasis

• 3rd is clot formation: this is during secondary hemostasis

Question 31

Primary hemostasis:

Answer 31

Platelets clot together to form a plug and release factors to help adhere them to the subendothelial collagen

Question 32

What are the three phases of primary hemostasis and describe

Answer 32

• Platelet Adhesion: platelets stick to the exposed subendothelial extracellular matrix occurs at the site of injury.
  - Von willebrand factor: A glycoprotein present in plasma and is released by endothelial cells and activated by platelets
  - Binds to glycoprotein receptors on platelets and to collagen in the subendothelium to act as a key bridging molecule between platelets and sites of endothelial injury
  - Receptors of the integrin family, bind platelets directly to extracellular matrix proteins
• Platelet activation: release substances
  - Adenosine: a potent activator of the platelets to amplify the platelet activation response
  - Serotonin and thromboxane A to assist in hemostasis as vasoconstrictors
  - vWF to augment platelet adhesion and aggregation
  -Ca and the clotting factors fibrinogen and factor V to facilitate coagulation
  - Platelet derived growth factor to promote wound healing
• Platelet aggregation: more come to the area
  
  • Antiplatelet drugs include: aspirin, plavix, ticlid, integrilin
  • Aspirin: prevents primary hemostasis but does not completely block it from happening

Question 33

When are each pathway of secondary hemostasis activated

Answer 33

• intrinsic pathway: when the platelets are exposed to a negatively charged surface (collagen)
• Extrinsic pathway: is activated when contacts cells outside the vascular endothelium (initiates thrombin generation)
• these two pathways converge at the activation of factor X

Question 34

prothrombin time (PT)

Answer 34

evaluates the extrinsic coagulation pathway. A sample of blood plasma is incubated with tissue factor in the presence of an excess of Ca2+. Because there are variations between assays, corrections may be applied that normalize the prothrombin time of a sample to that of a normal sample (e.g., the prothrombin ratio and international normalized ratio [INR]).

-warfarin increases PT

Question 35

partial thromboplastin time (PTT)

Answer 35

indicates the performance of the intrinsic pathway. The intrinsic pathway is triggered by adding an activator surface (e.g., silica) plus phospholipid and Ca2+ to a plasma sample. The anticoagulant drug heparin increases the PTT.