Birth And Physical Development

Question 1

When does prenatal development begin
What is prenatal development
This development takes an average of how many weeks and these weeks consists of which stages
Which period does organogenesis occur ?
When does the second period start and when does it last?
At which period do most women realize they’re pregnant ?

Which period is the longest and when does it begin and end?
When do the body systems begin to work
During prenatal development what can influence genes to stop working or make them weaker

Answer 1

It begins When a sperm successfully fertilizes an egg,the many changes that transform the fertilized egg into a newborn human is prenatal development

Average is 38 weeks but it’s from 37-42 weeks

The weeks consists of the period of the zygote,period of the embryo and period of the foetus

Period of the embryo (that’s why women at this stage should take folic acid for organ development especially for the spine development to prevent spina bifida and other congenital abnormalities)

Starts 3rd week after conception and lasts until the end of the 8th week .

Period of the embryo

Period of the foetus
It’s the final and longest phase . Begins at the ninth week (when cartilage begins to turn to bone) and ends at births
Period of the foetus

Toxins,nutrition,stress

Question 2

What observations are Made during prenatal development

What things influence prenatal development

Answer 2

Copulation
Fertilization
Implantation 
Organogenesis 
Multiple pregnancies 
Infertility 

Nutrition-proteins vitamins minerals example folic acid and iron
Stress-leads to
Low birth weight in women w anxieties
Age of pregnant woman(extremes of age such as too old or too young can cause them to have problems ,congenital abnormalities can occur in older women who get pregnant)
Lifestyle factors:smoking (due to effect of nicotine leading to increased risk of abortion , baby may be small for the gestational age(SGA)
Alcohol intake can cause fetal alcohol syndrome
STIs
Teratogens example thalidomide ,chemotherapy drugs cause malformations and may lead to miscarriage ,antiepileptic drugs (phenytoin) increase the incidence of cleft lip and palate ,restricted growth,aspirin(deficits in intelligence),caffeine(low birth weight),nicotine(retarded growth)
Environmental hazards (nuclear bombs,chemical wastes,radiation,pollution)
Diseases both inherited and non inherited
Example: HIV/AIDS,rubella,cytomegalovirus,syphilis,diabetes)

Question 3

What is the upper portion of the vagina called?
What is the part of the Fallopian tube that inserts into the womb
What are fimbrae
What are the parts of the Fallopian tube from the part that takes the egg to the part that connects to the womb
Ectopic pregnancy can be confused with what on scan?

Answer 3

Vault

intramural, or uterine

Fimbrae are hairlike structures that pick the egg

Fimbrae-infundibulum-ampulla-isthmus-intramural

Hemorrhagic cyst.
Pregnancy can be there with the hemorrhagic cyst instead of the ectopic and the bleeding may be due to the cyst and not the ectopic
So be very careful when diagnosing ectopic

Question 4

What are the conceptions of age?
Define them
What are the stages of physical growth and give the ages)
Which physical stage is more rapid

Answer 4

Chronological age- number of years that have gone by since birth
Social age: social roles and expectations related to a persons age
Biological age:deterioration of organisms that leads inevitably to their death
Psychological age: it’s subjective. It’s the individuals adaptive capacities compared w those of other individuals of the same chronological age

Infancy- growth is more rapid
-growth required high mount of energy
(First 2 years of life (the first month is the neonatal or newborn period))
Early childhood(2 to 5 or 6 years (some prefer to describe as toddlers children who have begun to walk and are age 1 to 3))
Middle (
6 to about 12 (or until the onset of puberty) )and late childhood
Adolescence (Approximately 12 to 20 )
Early adulthood-20 to 40 years
Middle adulthood-40 to 65 years
Late adulthood-
65 years and older

Question 5

What’s the composition of breast milk

What are the benefits of breast milk

Answer 5

It’s rich in protein, sugar, vitamins and minerals, plus numerous bioactive components – such as hormones, growth factors, enzymes and live cells – to support your baby’s healthy growth and development.

Advantages:
It boosts baby’s immune system.
It balances baby’s belly.
Breastmilk plants good bacteria into the digestive system to build a strong, healthy baby
Breastmilk is easily digestible.
Mother’s milk is perfect for baby’s developing digestive tract.

Question 6

Name one domain of development and explain
Cognitive development focuses on a child’s development in terms of what things?
What theory is associated w cognitive development?

Answer 6

Cognitive development
Refers to how a person perceives ,thinks,and gains understanding of his or her world through the interaction of genetic and learned factors

Information processing 
Conceptual resources
Perceptual skill
Language learning
Other aspects of the developed adult brain

Jean Piaget’s theory

Question 7

What are the theories of cognitive and psychoanalytic development

Answer 7

Piaget’s theory also called theory of constructivism

Sigmund Freud Psychoanalytic theory

Question 8

What does Piaget’s theory say?

Answer 8

Children actively construct new understandings of the world based on their own experiences
Humans do not acquire knowledge and understanding by passively perceiving it within a direct process of knowledge transmission,rather they contstruct new understandings and knowledge through experience and social discourse integrating new information with what they already know

Example: it is common for pre school kids to invent their own ideas by saying the sun is alive because it moves in the sky

Question 9

How do kids construct accurate understandings of the world?

According to Piaget,kids understand the world with schemes. What are schemes?

Answer 9

By being:
Curious 
Active explorers
Watching what is going on around them
Seeing what happens when they experiment  on objects they encounter

Psychological structures that organize experience. They are mental categories of related events,objects and knowledge

Question 10

What are the four major periods of cognitive development

These stages form what Piaget called?

Answer 10

Sensorimotor stage(birth to age 2)
Preoperational stage (2-7 years)
Concrete operations stage(ages 7-11)
Formal operations stage(11-12 or older)

An invariant sequence ;all children progress through the stages in the order they are listed without skipping stages or regressing to earlier stages

The ages are only guidelines cuz different kids progress at different rates

Question 11

What is the sensorimotor stage?
What is object permanence?
How is object permanence seen?

Answer 11

What their senses tell them is what their motor does
Infants in this stage deal with the world directly through their (perceptions) and actions(motor skills)
They construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences (such as seeing and hearing) with physical,motor actions

Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they can’t be seen,heard or touched

By watching an infants reaction when an interesting object disappears. If the infant searches for the object,it’s assumed the infant believes it’s still there or it continues it exist

Question 12

What is the preoperational stage

Answer 12

Child has now developed the capacity for symbolic thought but isn’t yet capable of logical problem solving

According to Piaget,pre school children are egocentric thinkers who have difficulty adopting perspectives other than their own and they may cling to incorrect ideas simply because they want them to be true

The 4- or 5-year-old can use words as symbols to talk about a problem and can mentally imagine doing something before actually doing it.

Preschoolers use their capacity for symbolic thought to develop language, engage in pretend play, and solve problems. But their thinking is not yet logical; they are egocentric (unable to take others’ perspectives) and are easily fooled by perceptions, failing conservation problems because they cannot rely on logical operations.

Question 13

What are concrete operations

Answer 13

School-age children acquire concrete logical operations that allow them to mentally classify, add, and otherwise act on concrete objects in their heads. They can solve practical, real-world problems through a trial-and-error approach but have difficulty with hypothetical and abstract problems.

They are more logical at this stage
They do well on problems that allow them to think about concrete objects
They can perform many logical actions in their head on concrete objects
For example they can mentally categorize or add or subtract objects

Question 14

What are the characteristics of the preoperational stage

Answer 14

Egocentrism: Arises from egocentrism. Thinks that nothing changes. Thinks that nothing can be undone. A thing cannot be restored to the way it was before a change occurred
Symbolic representation

Which characteristic of preoperational thought involves a child assuming that the world is unchanging, so always remains just the way it is currently? A young child’s belief that natural objects are alive and animals have human characteristics is: static reasoning or conservation (Conservation is the understanding that something stays the same in quantity even though its appearance changes.)

Centration and conservation: Centration is the tendency to focus on only one aspect of a situation at one time. while ignoring all other properties or characteristics

Actually it’s:
Egocentrism-child believes everyone sees the world as he or she does
Example:
A child gestures during a telephone conversation not realizing that the listener can’t see the gestures

Centration:child focuses on one aspect of a problem or a situation but ignored other relevant aspects
Example:In conservation of liquid quantity the child pays attention to the height of the liquid in the beaker but ignores the diameter of the beaker

Appearance as reality: Child assumes that an object really is what it appears to be
Example: child believes that a person smiling at another person is really happy even though the other person is being mean

Question 15

What is the formal operations stage

Answer 15

Adolescents can think about abstract concepts and purely hypothetical possibilities and can trace
the long-range consequences of possible actions. With age and experience, they can form hypotheses and systematically test them using the scientific method.

Adolescents who reach the formal operations stage are able to think more abstractly and hypothetically than school-age chil- dren. They can define justice abstractly, in terms of fairness, rather than concretely, in terms of the cop on the corner or the judge in the courtroom. They can formulate hypotheses or pre- dictions in their heads, plan how to systematically test their ideas experimentally, and imagine the consequences of their tests. It often takes some years before adolescents can adopt a thoroughly systematic and scientific method of solving problems and can think logically about the implications of purely hypothetical ideas.

Question 16

What are the strengths and weaknesses of Piaget’s theory and explain them

Answer 16

Merits:
Piaget’s ideas have influenced education and child rearing by encouraging teachers and parents to pitch their educational programs to children’s levels of understanding and to stimulate children to discover new concepts through their own direct grappling with problems.

Piaget changed how people saw a child’s world and their technique of studying children. Many who took up his ideas were inspired by him.

Piaget’s ideas were of efficient use in comprehending and corresponding with children, mainly in the educational field.

Piaget’s theory also helped change the way that researchers thought about children. Rather than simply viewing them as smaller versions of adults, experts began to recognize that the way children think is fundamentally different from the way that adults think.2

Demerits: example, critics fault him for saying too little about the influences of motivation and emotion on thought processes.
They also question whether Piaget’s stages really hang together as coherent and general modes of thinking that can be applied to a variety of types of problems; research suggests that the thinking skills needed to solve different types of problems are acquired at different rates.
Critics also conclude that Piaget underestimated the cognitive abilities of young children; recent studies suggest that children master some Piagetian concepts earlier than Piaget believed they did, although defenders of Piaget would question whether some of the simplified tasks used by later researchers really demon- strate that young children have fully mastered the concepts tested (Desrochers, 2008).
Piaget is also charged with putting too little emphasis on the role of parents and other more knowledge- able people in nurturing cognitive development.

Piaget focused on the universal stages of concentrated on cognitive development and biological process. He did not consider the effect that the social setting and cultures may have on cognitive development.

Piaget’s methods are more biased because he only did observation on his own and not with another researcher to compare and check for correlation.

Piaget‘s test were challenging to comprehend hence the reason why the abilities of children were underrated.

Piaget used small sample size of participant for his studies. He used only children from Switzerland which is where he is from. Therefore this Sample is biased because it cannot be generalized with children from other

Developmental variations exist:
The theory seems to suggest that reaching the formal operational stage is the end goal of development, yet it is not clear if all people actually fully achieve the developmental tasks that are the hallmark of formal operations. Even as adults, people may struggle to think abstractly about situations, falling back on more concrete operational ways of thinking.

The Theory Underestimated Children’s Abilities
Most researchers agree that children possess many of the abilities at an earlier age than Piaget suspected. Theory of mind research has found that 4- and 5-year-old children have a rather sophisticated understanding of their own mental processes as well as those of other people.
Example: For example, children of this age have some ability to take the perspective of another person, meaning they are far less egocentric than Piaget believed

Question 17

Differences between Piaget and Vygotskys sociocultural theory and one similarity

Answer 17

The fundamental difference between Piaget and Vygotsky is that Piaget believed in the constructivist approach of children, or in other words, how the child interacts with the environment, whereas Vygotsky stated that learning is taught through socially and culturally

whereas Piaget tended to see children as independent explorers, Vygotsky saw them as social beings who develop their minds through guided participation in culturally important activities in which parents, teachers, and other knowledgeable members of their culture provide “scaffolding” or support that facilitates learning.

By calling attention to guided participation processes, in the zone of proximal develop- ment, Vygotsky was rejecting Piaget’s view of children as inde- pendent explorers in favor of the view that they learn more so- phisticated cognitive strategies through their interactions with more mature thinkers. To Piaget, the child’s level of cognitive development determines what he can learn; to Vygotsky, learn- ing in collaboration with more knowledgeable companions drives cognitive development

Intellectually capable children rely more heavily on private speech in the preschool years and make the transition to inner speech earlier in the elementary school years than their less aca- demically capable peers do (Berk & Landau, 1993). This sug-
gests that the preschool child’s self-talk is indeed a sign of cogni- tive maturity, as Vygotsky claimed, rather than a sign of immature egocentrism, as Piaget claimed.

Similarity:

similarity between Piaget and Vygotsky is that they both believed that the boundaries of cognitive growth were instituted by societal influences.

Question 18

What is the main theme of Vygotsky’s theory (this is another perspective on cognitive development as well as the information processing approach)

Answer 18

Cognitive growth occurs in socio-cultural context and evolves out of the child’s social interactions

Like Piaget,Vygotsky’s emphasized that children actively construct their knowledge and understanding and are more often described as social creatures
They develop their ways of thinking and understanding through social interactions

Their cognitive development depends on the tools provided by society and their minds are shaped by the cultural context in which they live

Question 19

What are the three components of Vygotsky’s theory and explain ZPD

Answer 19

Zone of proximal development (ZPD):range of tasks that are too difficult for the child to master alone but that can be learned with guidance and assistance of adults or more skilled children. The zone is the area between the level of performance a child can achieve when working independently and a higher level of performance that is possible when working under the guidance or direction of more skilled adults or peers
Therefore the lower limit of ZPD is the level of skill reached by the child working independently and the upper limit of ZPD is the level of additional responsibility the child can accept w the assistance of an able instructor
Scaffolding
Language and thought

Question 20

What is scaffolding

What is an important tool of scaffolding in the zone of proximal development

Answer 20

A style in which teachers gauge the amount of assistance they offer to match the learners needs
Early in learning a new task,children know little so teachers give much direct instruction about how to do the different elements of a task.
As the kids catch on ,the teachers need to provide less direct instruction
They are more likely to be giving reminders

the more skilled person gives structured help to a less skilled learner but gradually reduces the help as the less skilled learner becomes more competent.

Dialogue

Question 21

What is the difference between preoperational and concrete thinkers

Answer 21

Preoperational Thinkers

Fail conservation tasks because they have:

Irreversible thought—Cannot mentally undo an action.

Centration—Center on a single aspect of a problem rather than two or more dimensions at once.

Static thought—Fail to understand transformations or processes of change from one state to another.

Perceptual salience. Understanding is driven by how things look rather than derived from logical reasoning.

Transductive reasoning. Children combine unrelated facts, often leading them to draw faulty cause–effect conclusions simply because two events occur close together in time or space

. Egocentrism. Children have difficulty seeing things from other perspectives and assume that what is in their mind is also what others are thinking.

Single classification. Children classify objects by a single dimension at one time.

Concrete-Operational Thinkers

Solve conservation tasks because they have:
• Reversibility of thought—Can mentally reverse or undo an action.
• Decentration—Can focus on two or more dimensions of a problem at once.
• Transformational thought—Can understand the process of change from one state to another.

Logical reasoning. Children acquire a set of internal operations that can be applied to a variety of problems.

Inductive reasoning. Children draw cause–effect conclusions logically, based on factual information presented to them.

Less egocentrism. Children understand that other people may have thoughts different from their own.

Multiple classification. Children can classify objects by multiple dimensions and can grasp class inclusion.

Question 22

Explain the five common criticisms of Piaget’s theory

Answer 22

1. Underestimating young minds. Piaget seems to have under- estimated the cognitive abilities of infants and young chil- dren, although he emphasized that he was more interested in understanding the sequences of changes than the specific ages at which they occur (Lourenco & Machado, 1996). When researchers use more familiar problems than Piaget’s and reduce tasks to their essentials, hidden competencies of young children—and of adolescents and adults—are some- times revealed.
2. Failing to distinguish between competence and performance. Piaget sought to identify underlying cognitive competencies that guide performance on cognitive tasks. But there is an important difference between understanding a concept and passing a test designed to measure it. The age ranges Piaget proposed for some stages may have been off target partly because he tended to ignore the many factors besides com- petence that can influence task performance—everything from the individual’s motivation, verbal abilities, and mem- ory capacity to the nature, complexity, and familiarity of the task used to assess mastery. Piaget may have been too quick to assume that children who failed one of his tests lacked competence; they may only have failed to demonstrate their competence in a particular situation.
   Perhaps more importantly, Piaget may have overempha- sized the idea that knowledge is an all-or-nothing concept (Schwitzgebel, 1999). Instead of having or not having a par- ticular competence, children probably gain competence gradually and experience long periods between not under- standing and understanding. Many of the seemingly contra- dictory results of studies using Piagetian tasks can be ac- counted for with this idea of gradual change in understanding. For instance, Piaget argued that infants do not show under- standing of object permanence until 9 months, but other research indicates that at least some understanding of object permanence is present at 4 months (Ruffman et al., 2005). If researchers accept that conceptual change is gradual, then they can stop debating whether competence is present or not present at a particular age.
3. Wrongly claiming that broad stages of development exist. According to Piaget, each new stage of cognitive development is a coherent mode of thinking applied across a range of prob- lems. Piaget emphasized the consistency of thinking within a
   stage and the difference between stages (Meadows, 2006). Yet individuals are often inconsistent in their performance on dif- ferent tasks that presumably measure the abilities defining a given stage. For example, conservation of liquid is acquired earlier than conservation of volume. Researchers increasingly argue that cognitive development is domain specific—that is, it is a matter of building skills in particular content areas—and that growth in one domain may proceed much faster than growth in another (Fischer, Kenny, & Pipp, 1990). In addi- tion, the transitions between stages are not swift and abrupt, as most of Piaget’s writings suggest, but are often lengthy (over several years) and subtle (see Meadows, 2006). It is not always clear when a child has made the shift from one set of struc- tures to a more advanced set of structures, particularly when we consider the two stages based on logical structures— concrete and formal operations.
4. Failing to adequately explain development. Several critics suggest that Piaget did a better job of describing develop- ment than of explaining how it comes about (Bruner, 1997; Meadows, 2006). To be sure, Piaget wrote extensively about his interactionist position on the nature–nurture issue and did as much as any developmental theorist to tackle the question of how development comes about. Presumably, humans are always assimilating new experiences in ways that their level of maturation allows, accommodating their think- ing to those experiences, and reorganizing their cognitive structures into increasingly complex modes of thought. Yet this explanation is vague. Researchers need to know far more about how specific maturational changes in the brain and specific kinds of experiences contribute to important cogni- tive advances.
5. Giving limited attention to social influences on cognitive devel- opment. Some critics say Piaget paid too little attention to how children’s minds develop through their social interactions with more competent individuals and how they develop differ- ently in different cultures (Karpov, 2005). Piaget’s child often resembles an isolated scientist exploring the world alone, but children develop their minds through interactions with par- ents, teachers, peers, and siblings. True, Piaget had interesting ideas about the role of peers in helping children adopt other perspectives and reach new conclusions (see Chapter 13 on moral development). But he did not believe that children learned much from their interactions with adults. This may seem counterintuitive, but Piaget believed that children see other children, but not adults, as “like themselves.” Hearing a different perspective from someone like oneself can trigger internal conflict, but hearing a perspective from someone dif- ferent from oneself may not be viewed as a challenge to one’s current way of thinking because the person—and their views—are simply too different. Thus, in Piaget’s model, no notable cognitive conflict, and therefore little cognitive growth, occurs from children interacting with adults. As you will see shortly, the significance of social interaction and cul- ture for cognitive development is the basis of the perspective on cognitive development offered by one of Piaget’s early crit- ics, Lev Vygotsky.

Question 23

Explain three of Piaget’s contributions

Answer 23

Piaget is a giant in the field of human development. As one scholar quoted by Harry Beilin (1992) put it, “assessing the im- pact of Piaget on developmental psychology is like assessing the impact of Shakespeare on English literature or Aristotle on philosophy—impossible” (p. 191). It is hard to imagine that re- searchers would know even a fraction of what they know about intellectual development without Piaget’s groundbreaking work.
One sign of a good theory is that it stimulates research. Piaget asked fundamentally important questions about how hu- mans come to know the world and showed that we can answer them “by paying attention to the small details of the daily lives of our children” (Gopnik, 1996, p. 225). His cognitive developmen- tal perspective has been applied to almost every aspect of human development, and the important questions he raised continue to guide the study of cognitive development. Thus, his theory has undoubtedly stimulated much research in the decades following its creation.
We can credit Piaget with some lasting insights (Flavell, 1996). He showed us that infants are active in their own development—that from the start they seek to master problems and to understand the incomprehensible by using the processes of assimilation and accommodation to resolve their cognitive disequilibrium. He taught us that young people think differently than older people do—and often in ways we never would have suspected. The reasoning of preschoolers, for example, often de- fies adult logic, but it makes sense in light of Piaget’s insights about their egocentrism and reliance on the perceptual salience of certain aspects of a situation. School-age children have the logical thought processes that allow them to excel at many tasks, but they draw a blank when presented with hypothetical or ab- stract problems. And adolescents are impressive with their scien- tific reasoning skills and their ability to wrestle with abstract problems, but they may think so much about events that they get tangled with new forms of egocentrism.
Finally, Piaget was largely right in his basic description of cognitive development. The sequence he proposed—sensorimotor to preoperational to concrete operations to formal operations— seems to describe the course and content of intellectual develop- ment for children and adolescents from the hundreds of cultures and subcultures that have been studied (Flavell, Miller, & Miller, 1993). Although cultural factors influence the rate of cognitive growth, the direction of development is always from sensorimotor thinking to preoperational thinking to concrete operations to, for many, formal operations (or even postformal operations). Piaget’s account of development remains relevant to our understanding of current issues in the field of cognition (Kuhn, 2008).

Question 24

What is language and thought

challeng- ing problems but also allows them to incorporate into their own thinking the problem-solving strategies they learned during their collaborations with adults. Notice that, as in guided participa- tion, what is at first a social process becomes an individual psy- chological process.
True or false

Answer 24

According to Vygotsky’s theory,children use their speech not only to communicate,but to help them solve tasks
He concluded that young children use language to guide and monitor their behavior
This use of language for self regulation is called private speech(—speech to oneself that guides one’s thought and behavior.)

Question 25

What are the strengths and weaknesses of Vygotsky’s theory

Answer 25

Weaknesses: Vygotsky has been criticized for placing too much emphasis on social interaction (Feldman & Fowler, 1997). Vygotsky seemed to assume that all knowledge and understanding of the world is transmitted through social interac- tion.

Vygotsky alerted us to sociocultural influences on cognitive development but died before he could formalize his theory.

Question 26

What is the instinct and unconscious theory in Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory
Give an example to explain instincts and unconscious motives

Answer 26

Central to Freudian psychoanalytic theory is the notion that hu- mans have basic biological urges or drives that must be satisfied. Freud viewed the newborn as a “seething cauldron,” an inher- ently selfish creature “driven” by instincts, or inborn biological forces that motivate behavior. These biological instincts are the source of the psychic (or mental) energy that fuels human behav- ior and that is channeled in new directions over the course of human development.
Freud strongly believed in unconscious motivation—the power of instincts and other inner forces to influence our behav- ior without our awareness.

. A preadolescent girl, for example, may not realize that she is acting in babyish ways in order to regain the security of her mother’s love; a teenage boy may not realize that his devotion to body building is a way of channeling his sexual and aggressive urges

Question 27

What is Id,Ego and Superego in Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory and give examples
What is the dynamic balance that operates between these three forces
When do problems w regards to these forces arise and give two examples to back it up

Answer 27

According to Freud (1933), each individual has a fixed amount of psychic energy that can be used to satisfy basic urges or in- stincts and to grow psychologically. As a child develops, this psychic energy is divided among three components of the per- sonality: the id, the ego, and the superego.
At birth, all psychic energy resides in the id—the impulsive, irrational, and selfish part of the personality whose mission is to satisfy the instincts. The id seeks immediate gratification, even when biological needs cannot be realistically or appropriately met. If you think about it, young infants do seem to be all id in some ways. When they are hungry or wet, they fuss and cry until their needs are met. They are not known for their patience.

The second component of the personality is the ego, the rational side of the individual that tries to find realistic ways of gratifying the instincts. According to Freud (1933), the ego be- gins to emerge during infancy when psychic energy is diverted from the id to energize cognitive processes such as perception, learning, and problem solving. The hungry toddler may be able to do more than merely cry when she is hungry; she may be able to draw on the resources of the ego to hunt down Dad, lead him to the kitchen, and say “cookie.” However, toddlers’ egos are still relatively immature; they want what they want now. As the ego matures further, children become more capable of postpon- ing their pleasures until a more appropriate time and of devising logical and realistic strategies for meeting their needs.

The third part of the Freudian personality is the superego, the individual’s internalized moral standards. The superego de- velops from the ego as 3- to 6-year-old children internalize (take on as their own) the moral standards and values of their parents. Once the superego emerges, children have a parental voice in their heads that keeps them from violating society’s rules and makes them feel guilty or ashamed if they do. The superego in- sists that people find socially acceptable or ethical outlets for the id’s undesirable impulses.

In the mature, healthy personality, a dynamic bal- ance operates: the id communicates its basic needs, the ego re- strains the impulsive id long enough to find realistic ways to sat- isfy these needs, and the superego decides whether the ego’s problem-solving strategies are morally acceptable. The ego has a tough job: it must strike a balance between the opposing de- mands of the id and the superego while accommodating the re- alities of the environment.

psychological problems often arise when the individual’s supply of psychic energy is un- evenly distributed among the id, the ego, and the superego. For
example, a person diagnosed as an antisocial personality, or so- ciopath, who routinely lies and cheats to get his way, may have a weak superego, whereas a married woman who cannot undress in front of her husband may have an overly strong superego, perhaps because she was made to feel ashamed about any inter- est she took in her body as a young girl

Question 28

What is Psychosexual development in Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory

Answer 28

Freud (1940/1964) maintained that as the child matures bio- logically, the psychic energy of the sex instinct, which he called libido, shifts from one part of the body to another, seeking to gratify different biological needs. In the process, as outlined in •Table 2.2, the child moves through five psychosexual stages: oral(birth to one year-Libido is focused on the mouth as a source of pleasure. Obtaining oral gratification from a mother figure is critical to later development.)
anal(1-3years. Libido is focused on the anus, and toilet training begins and it creates conflicts between the child’s biological urges and the society’s demands., phallic(3-6years. Libido centers on the genitals. Resolution of the Oedipus or the Electra complex results in identification with the same-sex parent and development of the superego. ) latent(6-12years. )Libido is quiet; psychic energy is invested in schoolwork and play with same-sex friends. 6 years until puberty which starts at 12 years where the child consolidates the character habits they developed in the earlier stages of psychological and sexual development and
genital.(12years and older. Puberty reawakens the sexual instincts as youths seek to establish mature sexual relationships and pursue the biological goal of reproduction.) it spans puberty through adult life. Represents most of a persons life
It’s purpose is psychological detachment and independence from parents
Affords the ability to confront and resolve their remaining psychosexual childhood conflicts . It is centered upon the genitalia but sexuality is consensual and adult rather than solitary and infantile as opposed to the phallic

Question 29

What are the strengths and weaknesses of Sigmund freuds psychoanalytic theory

Answer 29

First, it accounts for the impact of childhood on adult personality and mental health. Second, it explores the innate drives that motivate our behavior. On the one hand, it points to the way the unconscious mental processes people are born with influence their thoughts, feelings, and behavior

they have profoundly influenced psychotherapy by making the goal to bring unconscious motivations to the surface where they can be confronted and changed. Second, he was one of the first to highlight the importance for later development of early experiences in the family. Finally, he emphasized the im- portance of emotions and emotional conflicts in development and the workings of personality

Weaknesses:

First, critics often accuse it of being too deterministic, and therefore, denying that people can exercise conscious free will. In other words, by emphasizing the unconscious and the roots of personality in childhood experience, psychodynamic theory suggests that behavior is pre-determined and ignores the possibility that people have personal agency.

Psychodynamic theory is also criticized for being unscientific and unfalsifiable—it is impossible to prove the theory to be false. Many of Freud’s theories were based on single cases observed in therapy and remain difficult to test.

Question 30

What are the differences between Vygotsky’s and Piaget’s theories

Answer 30

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural View

Processes of animal and human development are fundamentally different.

Cognitive development is different in different social and historical contexts

Appropriate unit of analysis is the social, cultural, and historical context in which the individual develops.

Cognitive growth results from social interactions (guided participation in the zone of proximal development).

Children and their partners co-construct knowledge.

Social processes become individual psychological ones (e.g., social speech becomes inner speech).

Adults are especially important because they know the culture’s tools of thinking.

Learning precedes development (tools learned with adult help become internalized).

Training can help mediate development.

Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental View:

Processes of animal and human development are fundamentally the same.

Cognitive development is mostly the same universally.

Appropriate unit of analysis is the individual.

Cognitive growth results from the child’s independent explorations of the world.

Children construct knowledge on their own.

Individual, egocentric processes become more social (e.g., egocentric speech becomes social speech).

Peers are especially important because the cognitive conflict triggered by different perspectives of other children is not so overwhelming that it cannot be resolved.

Development precedes learning (children cannot master certain things until they have the requisite cognitive structures).

Training is largely ineffective in “speeding up” development.

Question 31

What is Oedipus complex and Electra complex

Answer 31

Oedipus complex loves his mother, fears that his father will retaliate by castrating him, and resolves this conflict through identification with his father. Identification involves taking on or internalizing the attitudes and behaviors of another person; the Oedipal boy defends against his forbidden
CHAPTER TWO THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
desire for his mother and hostility toward his father by possessing his mother vicariously through his now-admired and less fear- provoking father. Meanwhile, a girl experiencing an Electra complex is said to desire her father (and envy the fact that he has a penis, whereas she does not), view her mother as a rival, and ultimately resolve her conflict by identifying with her mother. When boys and girls resolve their emotional conflicts by identify- ing with the same-sex parent, they incorporate that parent’s val- ues into their superego, so the phallic period is critical in moral development.

Question 32

What’s the difference etween the phallic and the genital

Answer 32

The ego is established in the genital
The persons concern shifts from instinct to applying secondary process thinking to gratify desire by means of friendship ,a love relationship,family and adult responsibilities

Question 33

Which theory explains moral development
What does this theory say?

Development from one stage to another is fostered by what?

What are the six stages and three levels of moral development according to this theory(explain each stage and level)

Answer 33

Kohiberg’s theory

Moral development is the individuals ability to distinguish right from wrong ,to act on this distinction,and to experience pride when they do the right things and share or guilt when they do not .
Moral reasoning thinking process involved in deciding whether an act is right or wrong

These stages are universal.
Development from one stage to another is fostered by opportunities to take the perspective of others and yo experience conflict between one’s current stage of moral thinking and the reasoning of someone at a higher stage

Level 1: Preconventional Morality or level
It deals w punishment and reward. The child conforms to rules imposed by authority figures to avoid punishment or to obtain personal rewards. The perspective of the self dominates: What is right is what one can get away with or what is personally satisfying.
Stage 1:Obedience to authority
Stage 2: nice behavior in exchange for future favors

Level 2: Conventional morality or level
Deals w social norms. morality, the individual has internalized many moral values. He strives to obey the rules set by others (parents, peers, the govern- ment), at first to win their approval, later to maintain social order. The perspectives of other people are clearly recognized and given serious consideration.
Stage 3:Lives up to others expectations(good boy or good girl morality)
Stage 4: Follows rules to maintain social order.

Level 3: Post conventional morality or level. It deals w moral codes

the individual de- fines what is right in terms of broad principles of justice that have validity apart from the views of particular authority figures. The individual may distinguish between what is morally right and what is legal, recognizing that some laws—for example, the racial segregation laws that Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., challenged— violate basic moral principles. Thus, the person transcends the perspectives of particular social groups or authorities and begins to take the perspective of all individuals
Stage 5: adheres to a social contract when it’s valid
Stage 6:personal moral system based on abstract principles

Question 34

What are the aspects of physical development

Answer 34

Bodily growth and change
Children grow rapidly between the ages three and six but less quickly than before
-muscular and skeletal growth
-sleep patterns change
-brain development 
-motor skills development 
.fine motor 
. Gross motor
.handedness