Biotech applications Flashcards
Biotechnology, essentially deals with —- production of —- and —- using
genetically modified microbes, fungi, plants and animals
industrial scale
biopharmaceuticals and biologicals
The applications of biotechnology include —,
— , genetically modified – for agriculture, —-, bioremediation, — treatment, and energy production.
therapeutics
diagnostics
crops
processed food
waste
Three critical research areas of biotechnology are:
(i) Providing the —- in the form of improved organism usually a — or –
(ii) Creating— through engineering for a — to act, and
(iii) — technologies to purify the — compound.
best catalyst
microbe or pure enzyme
optimal conditions
catalyst
Downstream processing
protein/organic
Human beings have used
biotechnology to improve the quality of human life,
especially in the field of —- and —-
food production and health
Three options that can be thought for increasing food production
—-, — and —-
(i) agro-chemical based agriculture;
(ii) organic agriculture; and
(iii) genetically engineered crop-based agriculture
The Green Revolution succeeded in — but yet
it was not enough to feed the — human population.
tripling the food supply
growing
Increased yields have PARTLY been due to the use of —-, but MAINLY
due to the use of —- and use of agrochemicals
(—- and —).
improved crop varieties
better management practices
fertilisers and pesticides
However, for farmers in the —–, agrochemicals are often too expensive, and — in yield with existing varieties are not possible using —.
developing world
further increases
conventional breeding
Is there any alternative path that our understanding of — can show so that farmers may obtain maximum yield from their fields? Is there a way to minimise the use of — so that their harmful effects on the environment are reduced?
ans–?
genetics
fertilisers and chemicals
Use of genetically modified crops is a possible solution
—, —-, — and —- whose genes have been altered by — are called Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO).
Plants, bacteria, fungi and animals
manipulation
GM plants have been useful in many ways. Genetic modification has:
(i) made crops more – to abiotic stresses (—)
tolerant
cold, drought, salt, heat
Genetic modification has
(ii) reduced reliance on chemical pesticides (—)
pest-resistant crops
Genetic modification has
(iii) helped to reduce — losses
post harvest
Genetic modification has
(iv) increased — usage by plants (this prevents early
exhaustion of —).
efficiency of mineral
fertility of soil
Genetic modification has
(v) enhanced nutritional value of —, e.g., —
food
Vitamin ‘A’ enriched rice
In addition to these uses, GM has been used to create — to supply alternative resources to industries, in the form of —, — and —-
tailor-made plants
starches, fuels and pharmaceuticals.
Some of the applications of biotechnology in agriculture that you will
study in detail are the production of — plants, which could decrease the amount of pesticide used.
pest resistant
Bt — is produced by a
bacterium called —- (Bt for short).
toxin
Bacillus thuringiensis
Bt toxin gene has been cloned from the —and been expressed in —to provide resistance to —without the need for insecticides; in effect created a —
bacteria
plants
insects
bio-pesticide.
Examples of Bt plants are: (6)
Cotton, rice, soyabean, corn, potato, tomato
Bt Cotton: Some — of Bacillus thuringiensis produce — that
kill certain insects such as lepidopterans ( —-, —),
— (—) and dipterans (—, —-).
strains. proteins
tobacco budworm, armyworm
coleopterans-beetles
flies, mosquitoes
B. thuringiensis forms — during a particular phase of their growth.
protein crystals
Protein crystals produced by Bacillus Thuringenesis contain a —
toxic insecticidal protein.
This toxic insecticidal protein does not kill
the Bacillus cuz Actually, the Bt toxin protein exist as — but once an — the –toxin, it is converted into an active form of toxin due to the — of the — which — the crystals.
inactive protoxins
insect ingests
inactive
alkaline pH of the gut
solubilise
The activated toxin binds to the surface of — cells and create — that cause cell — and — and eventually cause death
of the insect.
midgut epithelial
pores
swelling and lysis
Specific — were isolated from Bacillus thuringiensis and
incorporated into the several — such as —
Bt toxin genes
crop plants
cotton
The choice of genes depends upon the — and —-, as most Bt toxins are — specific.
crop and the targeted pest
insect-group
The BT toxin is coded by a gene —- named — .
cryIAc
cry
There are a number of cry genes, for example, the proteins encoded
by the genes — and — control the —-, that of — controls —
cryIAc and cryIIAb
cotton bollworms
cryIAb
corn borer
RNAi takes place in all — organisms as a method of —.
This method involves — of a specific — due to a —
molecule that binds to and prevents — of the mRNA (silencing).
eukaryotic
cellular defense
silencing
mRNA
complementary dsRNA
translation
Pest Resistant Plants: Several — parasitise a wide variety of plants and animals including —.
nematodes
human beings
A nematode —- infects the — of — plants and causes a great reduction in yield.
Meloidegyne incognitia
roots, tobacco
A novel strategy was adopted to prevent this infestation of Maloidegyne Incognita which was based on the process of —
RNA interference (RNAi).
The source of this — could be from an infection by – having RNA genomes or — (—)
that replicate via an RNA intermediate.
complementary RNA
viruses
mobile genetic elements (transposons)
Using Agrobacterium vectors, — genes were introduced into the host plant
nematode-specific
The introduction of DNA into host plant was such that it produced both — and — in the host
cells.
These two RNA’s being — formed a double
stranded (dsRNA) that initiated — and thus, —of the nematode
sense and anti-sense RNA
complementary to each other
RNAi
silenced the specific mRNA
The consequence was that the parasite could not survive in a – host expressing specific — RNA.
transgenic
interfering
The – plant therefore got itself protected from the parasite
transgenic
The —- processes have made immense impact
in the area of – by enabling mass production of — and —-, —- drugs.
recombinant DNA technological
healthcare
safe and more
effective therapeutic
Further, the recombinant therapeutics —- as is common in case of
similar products isolated from — sources.
do not induce unwanted immunological responses
non-human
At present, about — therapeutics have been approved for human-use the world over .
30 recombinant
In India, — of these recombinant therapeutics are presently being —.
12
marketed
Management of — diabetes is possible by taking — at regular time intervals.
adult-onset
insulin
If a diabetic patient doesn’t have enough
—–insulin- one would have to — and use insulin from —-
human
isolate, other animals
If — were available that could make human insulin- You can easily — a large quantity of the bacteria and make
as much — as you need.
bacterium
grow, insulin
Insulin used for diabetes was earlier extracted from — of —- and —.
pancreas
slaughtered cattle and pigs
Insulin from — source, though caused some patients to develop
– or other types of reactions to the foreign
— .
an animal , allergy
protein
Insulin consists of —
chains: chain A and chain B, that are linked together by — bridges
two SHORT polypeptide
disulphide
In — (—) insulin is synthesised as a — (like a
pro-enzyme, the pro-hormone also needs to be — before it becomes a fully – and — hormone)
which contains an extra stretch called the —
mammals- including
humans
pro-hormone
processed
mature and functional
C peptide.
This C peptide is not present in the— and is
— during maturation into insulin.
mature insulin
removed
The main challenge for production of insulin using —- was getting insulin assembled into a — form. .
rDNA techniques
mature
In —, Eli Lilly — company prepared — DNA sequences corresponding to A and B, chains of human insulin and introduced them in — of — to produce insulin chains.
1983
American
two
plasmids of E. coli to
Chains A and B were
produced —, — and — by creating — bonds to form human insulin
separately, extracted and combined
disulfide
Gene therapy can act as a — if a person is — a — disease
corrective therapy
born with , hereditary
— is a collection of methods that allows correction of a — that has been diagnosed in a —. Here genes are — into a person’s cells and tissues to treat a disease.
Gene therapy
gene defect
child/embryo
inserted
Correction of a genetic defect involves – — into the individual or — to take over the function of and — for the — gene.
delivery of a normal gene
embryo
compensate
non-functional
The first clinical gene therapy was given in —- to a —old girl with — deficiency.
1990
4 year
adenosine deaminase (ADA)
ADA enzyme is crucial for
the — to function.
immune system
ADA deficiency is caused due to the — of the gene for —.
deletion
adenosine deaminase
In some children ADA deficiency can be cured by —; in others it can be treated by — therapy, in which functional ADA is given to the patient by —. But the problem with both of these approaches that they are not —-.
bone marrow transplantation
enzyme replacement
injection
completely curative
As a first step towards gene therapy, — from the blood of the patient are grown in a culture —
lymphocytes
outside
the body.
A functional — (using a —vector) is then introduced into these — , which are subsequently returned to the patient.
ADA cDNA
retroviral
lymphocytes
However, as these lymphocyte cells are —, the patient requires — of such genetically engineered lymphocytes.
not immortal
periodic infusion
However, if the gene isolate from —- is introduced into cells
at early embryonic stages, it could be a — cure.
marrow cells producing ADA
permanent
For effective treatment of a disease, — and understanding its —- is very important.
early diagnosis and
understanding its pathophysiology
Using — of diagnosis (— and —- analysis, etc.) early detection is not possible.
conventional methods (serum and urine)
—-, — and —- are some of
the techniques that serve the purpose of early diagnosis.
Recombinant DNA technology,
Polymerase Chain Reaction
(PCR) and
Enzyme Linked Immuno-sorbent Assay (ELISA)
Presence of a pathogen (—,—-etc.) is normally suspected only when the pathogen has produced a —. By this time the concentration of pathogen is already — in the body.
bacteria, viruses,
disease symptom
very high
However, very low concentration of a bacteria or virus (at a time when the —) can be detected by – of their
— by —.
symptoms of the disease are not yet visible
amplification , nucleic acid by PCR
— is now routinely used to detect HIV in — patients.
PCR
suspected
AIDS
PCR being used to detect — in genes in suspected — patients too.
mutations, cancer
—- is a powerful technique to identify many other – disorders
PCR
genetic
A single stranded —, tagged with a — (—) is allowed to hybridise to its complementary DNA in a — of cells followed by detection using —-.
DNA or RNA
radioactive molecule- probe
clone
autoradiography
The clone having the
— gene will hence not appear on the — film, because the probe will not have — with that — gene.
mutated
photographic
complementarity, mutated
ELISA is based on the principle of —
antigen-antibody interaction.
In ELISA, Infection by pathogen can be detected by the presence of –
(—, —) or by detecting the – synthesised against the pathogen.
antigens (proteins, glycoproteins, etc.)
antibodies
Animals that have had their DNA — to — and — an — (foreign) gene are known as transgenic animals.
manipulated
possess and express
extra
Transgenic — (6) have been produced, although over —- of all existing transgenic animals are –.
rats, rabbits, fish, cow, sheep, pigs
95 per cent
mice
Normal physiology and development:
Transgenic animals can
be specifically designed to allow the study of —, and how they affect — and
and its — ,
e.g., study of — involved in growth such as — .
how genes are regulated
the normal functions of the body
development
complex factors
insulin-like growth factor
By introducing genes from other species that alter the —- and studying the — that result, information is obtained about the — of the factor in the body.
formation of this factor
biological effects
biological role
Study of disease:
Many transgenic animals are designed to increase
our understanding of how — contribute to the —
genes
development of disease.
Transgenic animals specially made to serve as — for human diseases so that investigation of — is made possible.
models
new treatments for diseases
Today transgenic models exist for many human diseases such as — (4)
Cystic fibrosis
Rheumatoid arthritis
Cancer, Alzheimer’s
Biological products:
— required to treat certain human diseases can contain —, but such products are often — to make.
Medicines
biological products
expensive
Transgenic animals that produce useful — can be created by the introduction of the — of – (or genes) which codes for a particular product such as human protein (—-) used to treat —.
biological products
portion of dna
α-1-antitrypsin
emphysema
Similar attempts are being made for treatment of — and —- using Biological products from transgenic animals.
phenylketonuria (PKU)
and cystic fibrosis
In —-, the first transgenic —, —-, produced human protein-enriched milk (—).
The milk contained the human — and was nutritionally a more — for human babies than natural cow-milk.
1997, cow- Rosie
2.4 grams per litre
alpha-lactalbumin
balanced product
Vaccine safety:
——- are being developed for use in
testing the safety of vaccines before they are used on humans.
Transgenic mice
Transgenic mice are being used to test the safety of the— .
If successful and found to be reliable, they could replace the use of
— to test the safety of batches of the vaccine.
polio vaccine
monkeys
Chemical safety testing: This is known as — testing.
The procedure is the same as that used for —
toxicity/safety
testing toxicity of drugs.
Transgenic animals are made that carry genes which make them — to toxic substances than non-transgenic animals. They are then exposed to the — and the effects studied.
more sensitive
toxic substances
Toxicity testing in such animals will allow us to obtain —–
results in less time
The — of living organisms by the human race cannot go on any further, without —.
manipulation
regulation
Some —- are required to
evaluate the —- of all human activities that might help or harm living
organisms.
ethical standards
morality
Going beyond the morality of such issues, the —- of such things is also important.
biological significance
Genetic modification of organisms can have — results when such organisms are introduced into —-
unpredicatable
the ecosystem.
Therefore, the Indian Government has set up organisations such as
—- which will make
decisions regarding the —- of GM research and the — of introducing GM-organisms for —-
GEAC (Genetic Engineering Approval Committee),
validity
safety
public services.
The modification/usage of living organisms for public services (as — and — sources, for example) has also created problems with —- for the same.
food and medicine
patents granted
There is growing public anger that —- are being
granted patents for — and —- that make use of the —, — and other —- that have long been identified, developed and used by — of a specific region/country
certain companies
products and technologies
genetic materials, plants and other biological resources
farmers and indigenous people
— is an important food grain, the presence of which goes back — of years in —- history.
Rice
thousands
Asia’s agricultural
There are an estimated
— of rice in India alone.
200,000 varieties
The diversity of rice in India is one of the —- in the world.
richest
—- is distinct for its unique — and —- and —documented varieties of Basmati are grown
in India.
Basmati rice
aroma and flavour
27
There is reference to Basmati in —-, —- and —- as it has been grown for centuries
ancient texts, folklore and poetry,
In —-, an American
company got patent rights on Basmati rice through the —–.
1997
US Patent and Trademark Office
This allowed the company to sell a ‘—- of Basmati, in the US and abroad.
new’ variety
This ‘new’ variety of Basmati had actually
been derived from —-.
—Basmati was crossed with — varieties and claimed as an invention or a novelty
Indian farmer’s varieties
Indian crossed with semi-dwarf
The patent extends to —-, implying that other people selling Basmati rice could be restricted by the patent.
functional equivalents
Several attempts have also been made to patent —, — and —- based on
Indian traditional herbal medicines, e.g., — and —
uses, products and processes
turmeric neem
If we are not — and we do not immediately counter these patent applications, other countries/ individuals may — on our —- and we may not be able to do anything about it.
vigilant
encash, rich legacy
—- is the term used to refer to the use of bio-resources by —- and —-without proper authorisation from the countries and people concerned without–
Biopiracy
multinational companies and other organisations
compensatory payment.
Most of the —- are rich financially but poor in
biodiversity and traditional knowledge.
industrialised nations
In contrast the developing and the underdeveloped world is —- related to —-
rich in biodiversity and traditional knowledge
bio-resources
Traditional knowledge related to bio-resources can be exploited to develop — and can
also be used to —, — and —– during their —-.
modern applications
save time, effort and expenditure
commercialisation
There has been growing realisation of the —- and —- between developed and developing countries.
injustice, inadequate compensation and benefit sharing
Therefore, some nations are developing laws to prevent such —- of their bio-resources and traditional knowledge
unauthorised exploitation
The Indian Parliament has recently cleared the —-
of the —- that takes such issues into consideration,
including —– and —
second amendment
Indian Patents Bill,
patent terms emergency provisions and research and
development initiative
As —– techniques failed to keep pace with demand and to provide sufficiently fast and efficient systems for —-, another technology called —- got developed
traditional BREEDING
crop improvement
It was learnt by scientists, during —-, that whole — can be regenerated from —-,
1950’s
plants
explants
Explants are any part of the plant taken out and grown in —, under —-conditions in —–
a test tube
sterile
special nutritive media
This capacity to generate a whole plant from any — is called —
cell/ explant
totipotency
The nutrient medium must provide a —- such as —- and also— (4)
carbon source
sucrose
inorganic salts, vitamins, amino acids, growth regulators like auxins, cytokinins
By tissue culture, its possible to produce —– of plants in — duration
large number of plants
very short duration
This method of producing thousands of plants through tissue culture is called ——
micropropagation
All these plants (produced through tissue culture/ micropropagation) will be—- similar to the original plant from which they were grown, i.e. they are —-
genetically
SOMACLONES
Many imp food plants like —-, —-, —- has been produced on a large —-scale using this method (tissue culture)
banana, tomato, apple
commercial
Another imp application of tissue culture is the recovery of — from —-
healthy plants from diseased plants
Even if the plant is infected by —, the — (— and —-) is free of the —
virus
meristem (apical, axillary)
virus
Hence, one can remove the —- and grow it —- to obtain virus-free plants
meristems
in vitro
Scientists have succeeded in culturing meristems of —, —- and —–
banana, sugarcane, potato
Scientists have even isolated —- from plants and after digesting their cell walls have been able to isolate —- (surrounded by —-)
single cells
naked protoplasts, pm
— from 2 different varieties of plants- each having—-, can be fused to get —-, which can further be grown to form a new plant
These hybrids are called — and the process—-
Isolated protoplasts
desirable characteristics
hybrid protoplasts
somatic hybrids
somatic hybridisation
When protoplast of tomato and — are fused and then are grown - a new hybrid plant —- was formed combining both their characteristics.
But unfortunately, it didnt have —– for commercial utilization
potato
pomato
all desired combination of characteristics
Biotechnology has given to humans several — by using microbes, plant, animals and their —-.
useful products
metabolic machinery
Recombinant DNA technology has made it possible to — microbes, plants and animals such that they have —-.
engineer
novel capabilities
Genetically Modified Organisms have been created by using methods other than—- to transfer one or more genes from one organism to
another, generally using techniques such as —
other than natural methods
recombinant DNA
technology.
GM plants have been useful in increasing —, reduce postharvest losses and make crops more tolerant of —.
crop yields
stresses
There are several GM crop plants with —- of foods and reduced the reliance on chemical pesticides (—).
improved nutritional value
pest-resistant crops
Recombinant DNA technological processes have made immense
impact in the area of — by enabling mass production of safe and more effective — .
healthcare
therapeutics
Since the recombinant therapeutics are identical to —-, they do not induce unwanted immunological responses and are free from risk of — as was
observed in case of similar products isolated from — sources.
human proteins
infection
non-human
Human insulin is made in — yet its structure is absolutely identical to that of the —
bacteria
natural molecule.
Transgenic animals are also used to understand how genes contribute to the — by serving as models for human diseases, such as cancer, cystic fibrosis, rheumatoid arthritis and Alzheimer’s.
development of a disease
Gene therapy is the — of genes into an individual’s — to treat diseases especially hereditary diseases.
It does so by replacing a —- with a functional one or
gene targeting which involves —-
insertion
cells and tissues
defective mutant allele
gene amplification
—- that attack their hosts and introduce their — into the host cell as part of their replication cycle are used as — to transfer healthy genes or more recently —
Viruses
genetic material
vectors
portions of genes
The current interest in the manipulation of microbes, plants, and animals has raised —-
serious ethical questions.
