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Biology > BIOSCI 107 Short Answers > Flashcards

BIOSCI 107 Short Answers Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the 6 Levels of Structural Organisation?

A

Chemical, Cellular, Tissue, Organ, System, Organismal.

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2
Q

What are the 4 Tissue Types?

A

Epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous.

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3
Q

What is the Function of Epithelial Tissue?

A

Protection, filtration, secretion, absorption, excretion.

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4
Q

What is the Function of Connective Tissue?

A

Protects and supports, binds organs together, stores energy, transport (blood).

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5
Q

What is the Function of Muscle Tissue?

A

Movement.

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6
Q

What is the Function of Nervous Tissue?

A

Detects changes.

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7
Q

What are the General Features of Epithelial Tissue?

A

Arranged in continuous sheets as single or multiple layers, held together by cell junctions.

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8
Q

What is the General Structure of the Basement Membrane?

A

Two parts: Basal Lamina and Reticular Lamina.

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9
Q

What does the Basal Lamina contain?

A

Collagen, laminin, other proteoglycans and glycoproteins.

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10
Q

What does the Reticular Lamina contain?

A

Fibrous proteins like fibronectin and collagen.

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11
Q

What are the 3 Functions of the Basement Membrane?

A

Supports overlying epithelium, acts as a physical barrier, provides a surface for epithelial cells to migrate.

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12
Q

How is Epithelial Tissue Classified?

A

By arrangement and shape.

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13
Q

What are the 3 Categories of Arrangement for Epithelial Tissue?

A

Simple, stratified, pseudostratified.

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14
Q

What are the 4 Categories of Shape for Epithelial Tissue?

A

Squamous, cuboidal, columnar, transitional.

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15
Q

What is Simple Squamous Epithelial Tissue?

A

Thin/flat cells found in Bowman’s capsule, inside eye, alveoli, inside heart.

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16
Q

What is Simple Cuboidal Epithelial Tissue?

A

Cuboidal/hexagonal boxes found in pancreas ducts, kidney ducts, thyroid, lens surface.

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17
Q

What are the Characteristics of the Basement Membrane?

A

Permeable, between epithelial and connective tissue, provides substructure for injury, gets reconstructed during healing.

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18
Q

How do we determine if something is Single or Multicellular?

A

Structure of duct, structure of secretory area, relationship between the two.

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19
Q

What are the Specialised Subtypes of Simple Squamous Tissue?

A

Mesothelium lines pericardial, pleural, peritoneal cavities.

Endothelium lines inside of heart and blood vessel.

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20
Q

What are the Specialised Subtypes of Simple Cuboidal Tissue?

A

None.

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21
Q

What are the Specialised Subtypes of Simple Columnar Tissue?

A

Cilia or microvilli.

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22
Q

What are the 11 Body Systems?

A

Integumentary, muscular, skeletal, nervous, endocrine, lymphatic and immune, cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, urinary, reproductive.

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23
Q

What are the Functions of Connective Tissue?

A

Binds, supports and strengthens other tissues, transport system, stored energy reserves.

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24
Q

How does Connective Tissue Compare to Epithelial Tissue?

A

Unlike Epithelia: Not found on body surfaces, can be highly vascular
Like Epithelia: Supplied by nerves.

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25
Q

What is Connective Tissue Comprised of?

A

Extracellular matrix + cells.

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26
Q

What are the main Components of ECM?

A

Ground substance, 3 protein fibres.

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27
Q

What is Ground Substance made of?

A

H2O, proteins and polysaccharides.

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28
Q

What are some examples of Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)?

A

Sulphated: Dermatan sulphate, heparin sulphate, keratan sulphate, chondroitin sulphate.
Non-Sulphated: Hyaluronic acid

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29
Q

What does Hyaluronic Acid do?

A

Binds cells together, lubricates joints and maintains shape of eyeball.

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30
Q

What does Hyaluronidase do?

A

Makes ground substance more liquid so they can move more easily in it.

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31
Q

What does Chondroitin do?

A

Supports and provides adhesive features of cartilage, bone, skin and blood vessels.

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32
Q

What are the 3 Features of Collagen Fibres?

A

Very strong/flexible, varying features for different tissues, 25% of our body.

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33
Q

What are the 5 Features of Reticular Fibres?

A

Made of bundled collagen, made by fibroblasts, provide strength/support, form part of basement membrane and networks in vessels, thinner, branching, spreads through tissue.

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34
Q

What are the Features of Elastic Fibres?

A

Thinner than collagen fibres, fibrous network, more strength and stability given by fibrillin (elastin surrounded by this), stretches up to 150%, in skin, blood vessels and lung.

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35
Q

How is Marfan Syndrome Caused?

A

Mutation on chromosome 15 causes elastic fibre defect, fibrillin is structural scaffold for elastin, leads to tall/long limbed/weakened heart valves individuals.

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36
Q

What is the Function of Fibroblasts?

A

Secrete components of the matrix.

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37
Q

What is the Function of Adipocytes?

A

Store fat.

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38
Q

What are the 2 Types of Connective Tissue?

A

Embryonic and mature.

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39
Q

What is a Bone?

A

Organ composed of several connective tissue types, including bone tissue.

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40
Q

What is Osteon made of?

A

Lamellae, lacunae, canaliculi, central canal.

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41
Q

What is Spongy Bone?

A

Porous inner bone tissue underneath compact bone.

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42
Q

What is Cancellous Bone?

A

Compact bone.

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43
Q

What is the Difference between Osteoblasts and Osteoclasts?

A

Osteoblast - lays down material

Osteoclast - gathers up material

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44
Q

How does Muscle Tissue Contract?

A

Cells use energy from hydrolysis of ATP to generate force.

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45
Q

What are the 3 Types of Muscle?

A

Skeletal, Cardiac, Smooth.

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46
Q

What are Striations?

A

Myofibrils within cells - these fill the cytoplasm.

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47
Q

What are the 2 Types of Myofibril?

A

Thick filaments (myosin), thin filaments (actin).

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48
Q

How are Myofilaments Arranged?

A

In compartments (sarcomeres).

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49
Q

What are the 3 Variations of Connective Tissue in Muscles?

A

Epimysium, perimysium, endomysium.

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50
Q

What are Intercalated Discs?

A

Desmosomes and gap junctions.

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51
Q

What are the 2 Types of Nervous System?

A

Central nervous system (brain/spinal cord)

Peripheral nervous system (all nervous tissue outside CNS)

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52
Q

What are the 3 Functions of Nervous Tissue?

A

Maintain homeostasis, initiate voluntary movements, perception/behaviour/memory.

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53
Q

Which activities does the Nervous System carry out?

A
  1. Sensory (CNS)
  2. Integrative
  3. Motor (PNS)
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54
Q

How can we Describe Neurons?

A

Have a cell body where dendrites convey nerve impulses (actin potentials), where a longer, single axon conducts nerve impulses to another neuron or tissue.

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55
Q

What are the 4 Features of Multipolar Neurons?

A

Have 2+ dendrites and 1 axon, most common neurons in CNS, all motor neurons are in this class, some of the longest.

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56
Q

What are the 4 Features of Bipolar Neurons?

A

2 processes (1 dendrite, 1 axon), cell body between axon and dendrite, rare/small, special sense organs relay info from receptor to neurons.

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57
Q

What are the 5 Key Features of a Unipolar Neuron?

A

Dendrites and axon are continuous, cell body off to one side, whole thing from where dendrites converge called axon, most sensory nerves are unipolar, v.long - like motor nerves.

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58
Q

What is an Anaxonic Neuron?

A

Found in brain and special sense organs, function not understood.

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59
Q

What are the Functions of Neuroglia?

A

Physical structure, repair, phagocytosis, nutrient supply, regulate interstitial fluid.

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60
Q

Where can Neuroglia Divide?

A

In mature nervous systems.

61
Q

What are the 4 Functions of an Astrocyte?

A

Support, neuron communication, maintain environment, maintain blood-brain barrier.

62
Q

What is the Function of Ependymal Cells?

A

Produce cerebrospinal fluid to line CSF-filled ventricles and central canal of the spinal cord.

63
Q

What is the function of a Schwann Cell?

A

Insulation and support for non-myelinated axons (myelin sheath).

64
Q

What is the Function of a Satellite Cell?

A

Surround neuron cell bodies and support/fluid exchange.

65
Q

What is Epimysium?

A

Outer layer of main muscle body.

66
Q

What are the 4 Key Features of Smooth Muscle?

A

Can be packed in together, between dense bodies are intermediate filaments, lots of single nuclei, very open.

67
Q

What is the Function of Neuroglia in the Brain?

A

Envelope capillaries to form blood-brain barrier.

68
Q

What are the 4 Functions of a Plasma Membrane?

A

Physical barrier, mediate movement, cell-cell identification, intercellular communication.

69
Q

What is the Phospholipid Bilayer made of?

A

Transmembrane proteins, peripheral membrane proteins, glycoproteins.

70
Q

What are the 6 Functions of Membrane Proteins?

A

Transport, enzymatic activity, signal transduction, cell-cell recognition, intercellular joining, attachment to the cytoskeleton and ECM.

71
Q

What is the Primary Function of a Nucleus?

A

To house/protect DNA in eukaryotic cells.

72
Q

What are the Secondary Functions of a Nucleus?

A

rRNA and ribosome production, compartmentalisation, segregating molecules, temporal/spatial control of cell function.

73
Q

What are the Stabilising Bonds in DNA?

A

Phosphodiester bonds, hydrogen bonds.

74
Q

What are the Components of a Functional Ribosome?

A

Large subunit + small subunit.

75
Q

What are the 2 Locations of Ribosomes in a Cell?

A

Free in the cytoplasm or attached to the rough ER.

76
Q

What is the Endoplasmic Reticulum?

A

Extensive network of tubes and tubules, stretching out from the nuclear membrane.

77
Q

What is the Difference in Purpose of Smooth and Rough ER?

A

Rough - Sorting and packaging

Smooth - Production of lipids/carbs, housing unit for tissue specific proteins.

78
Q

What is the Golgi Complex?

A

Complex of flattened membranous sacs cisternae, stacked on top of one another, curved into a cup shape.

79
Q

What are the 4 Functions of Lysosomes?

A

Digestion: substances that enter a cell, cell components, entire cells, any extracellular digestion.

80
Q

What are the 3 Components of Mitochondria?

A

Outer mitochondrial membrane, inner mitochondrial membrane (folds called cristae), fluid filled interior cavity called the mitochondrial matrix.

81
Q

What are the 3 Functions of the Cytoplasm?

A

Maintain size, shape and integrity, acts as scaffolding across cell, intracellular transportation and cell movement.

82
Q

What are the 3 Main Fibres?

A

Microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules.

83
Q

What are the 4 Features of Microvilli?

A

Comprised of actin molecules, found around the periphery, bear tension and weight by anchoring cytoskeleton, assembled and disassembled.

84
Q

What is the Main Function of Proteins?

A

Carrying out cellular functions.

85
Q

Why is Gene Expression Important?

A

Housekeeping proteins are actively transcribed from DNA continuously, signalling proteins are produced in response to stimuli.

86
Q

What Factor Initiates Transcription in Eukaryotes?

A

Proteins called basal transcription factors.

87
Q

What is the Adaptor Molecule for mRNA Triplet Specification?

A

Transfer RNA (tRNA).

88
Q

What is the Role of tRNA?

A

Enzymes called aminoacyl tRNA synthestases ‘charge’ the tRNA by catalysing the addition of amino acids to tRNAs (requires ATP).

89
Q

What is the Mechanism of Translation?

A

Ribosome subunits are assembled in the nucleolus and transported to the cytosol.

90
Q

What are Amino Acids?

A

‘Building blocks’ that form proteins (20 used in protein construction).

91
Q

What are the 2 Functional Groups associated with Amino Acids?

A

Carboxyl group, amino group.

92
Q

Which 3 Factors Determine the Properties of a Protein?

A

Size, content of amino acids, sequence of amino acids.

93
Q

How does a Peptide Bond join Amino Acids Together?

A
  1. Side chains ‘stick out’ from backbone
  2. Directional ‘N-terminus’ and ‘C-terminus’
  3. It is flexible
94
Q

How do we Differentiate between a Peptide and a Protein?

A

<50 amino acids = Peptide

>50 amino acids = Protein

95
Q

What is Interphase made up of?

A

G1 phase, S phase, G2 phase.

96
Q

What happens during the Mitotic Phase?

A

PPMAT: Prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase.

97
Q

Where are the 3 Major Checkpoints of the Cell Cycle?

A

G1 to S, G2 to M, M (SAC).

98
Q

How are Secondary Structures Formed?

A

O from C=O forms hydrogen bond with H from N=H, shape adopts two common structures (alpha helix or beta sheet).

99
Q

What will Alteration in the Amino Acid Sequence do?

A
  1. Alter target enzyme can bind

2. And how efficiently it can degrade

100
Q

How is Energy Stored from Cellular Respiration?

A

Transferred from other complex molecules to ATP, energy ready to be used again.

101
Q

How is Energy Used from Cellular Respiration?

A

Transferred from ATP to complex molecules, molecules can be formed or used to do work.

102
Q

What are the 3 Categories of Food and what are they Broken Down into?

A

Proteins: amino acids
Fats: simple fats
Carbohydrates: simple sugars (absorbed)

103
Q

What are the 3 Major Biochemical Pathways?

A

Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle, Electron Transport Chain

104
Q

What are the Ratios of Glycolysis in terms of ATP?

A

Two ATP are required, and four ATP are produced. Net gain of two ATP.

105
Q

How is Acetyl CoA Formed?

A
  1. Either conversion of Pyruvic acid to acetyl CoA anaerobic process in mitochondrial matrix.
  2. Or carbs can be metabolised then converted to acetyl CoA.
106
Q

What is the Function of the ETC?

A

Generates energy, exploited to make ATP.

107
Q

What is the brief Process of ETC?

A

ETC uses energy from redox reactions to fuel pumping of protons up a concentration gradient from matrix to inner membrane space.

108
Q

What happens when Insulin is Absent?

A

No glucose in cells, no cellular respiration, no ATP from glucose, no glycogen ‘for a rainy day’.

109
Q

What is the Function of Insulin?

A

Promote glucose uptake into cells.

110
Q

What is the Function of Glucagon?

A

Stimulates breakdown of glycogen to increase blood sugar levels.

111
Q

What are the 4 Steps of Intercellular Signalling?

A

Signal reception, signal processing, signal response, signal deactivation.

112
Q

What Impacts do Steroid Hormones have?

A

Direct effect, bind to a receptor protein, hormone-receptor complex transported to nucleus, alters gene expression.

113
Q

What are the 2 Types of Receptor?

A

Cytosolic/nuclear or membrane-bound/cell surface receptors.

114
Q

What are G Proteins?

A

Intracellular peripheral membrane proteins closely associated with transmembrane signal receptors.

115
Q

What happens during Reception?

A

The receptor activates an enzyme.

116
Q

What happens during Signal Transduction?

A

The enzyme activates a relay molecule or 2nd messenger; the 2nd messenger activates a signal transduction pathway (usually a phosphorylation).

117
Q

What is Signal Transduction?

A

Converts an easily transmitted extracellular message into a greatly amplified intracellular message that carries into throughout the cell and induces a cell response.

118
Q

What does the Sperm need to Penetrate to Fertilise an Egg?

A

The zona pellucida.

119
Q

When does Compaction occur?

A

After the 8 cell stage.

120
Q

What are the 3 Models for Cell Differentiation?

A

Mosaic (not accepted), positional, polarity.

121
Q

What is the Positional Model?

A

Cells differentiate into ICM or trophoblast depending on their contact with the external environment.

122
Q

What is the Polarity Model?

A

Polarised cells can divide in 2 ways.

123
Q

What does the Polarity Model say will happen if Cell Division is Parallel to the Polarisation Axis?

A

The 2 daughter cells will be polarised and remain on the outside of the cell.

124
Q

What does the Polarity Model say will happen if Cell Division is Orthogonal to the Polarisation Axis?

A

1 daughter cell will be polar and 1 will be apolar.

125
Q

What happens to the Blastocyst on Day 4/5 of Development?

A

Fluid moves through the trophoblast into the centre of the morula and forms the blastocyst cavity.

126
Q

Where are Human Foetus Tissues Derived from?

A

Epiblast.

127
Q

Where are Extra-Embryonic Support Structures Derived from?

A

Hypoblast and epiblast.

128
Q

What are the 3 Germ Layers?

A

Ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm.

129
Q

What is Embryonic Folding?

A

Elongated oval-disc embryo transforms into a 3D structure.

130
Q

What is Longitudinal Bending?

A

Flat disc of the trilaminar embryo bends along the rostro-caudal axis, creating a C-shape.

131
Q

What is Transverse Folding?

A

Folding along the transverse axis of the embryo.

132
Q

Where does Chordamesoderm Form?

A

As a rod-like structure along the midline of the embryo.

133
Q

Where does Paraxial/Somitic Mesoderm Form?

A

At both sides of the midline.

134
Q

Where does Intermediate Mesoderm Form?

A

As paired cylindrical structures lateral to the paraxial mesoderm.

135
Q

Where does Lateral Plate Mesoderm Form?

A

As flattened sheets lateral to the intermediate mesoderm.

136
Q

What is Unique about Chordamesoderm?

A

Only non-paired mesodermal structure.

137
Q

How is the Notochord Formed?

A

16 days after fertilisation, cells migrating through the rostral tip of the primitive streak will position themselves at the midline, forming the notochord.

138
Q

What does the Intermediate Mesoderm give rise to?

A

The urogenital system.

139
Q

Which 2 Sheets does the Lateral Plate Mesoderm Form?

A

Visceral and Parietal later plate mesoderms.

140
Q

What is the Functional Significance of the Pharyngeal Arches?

A

Each arch is a developmental unit with develops into a specific head or neck structure, also associated with specific blood vessels, muscles and nerves.

141
Q

What is the Function of the Placenta?

A

To provide oxygen and nutrients to the fetus, whilst removing carbon dioxide and other waste products.

142
Q

What is the Role of Trophoblasts during Implantation?

A

Forms the walls around the blastocyst cavity and differentiates into 2 tissues: cellular trophoblast and syncytial trophoblast.

143
Q

What is the Function of the Amniotic Sac?

A

Storage for metabolic residues and a protective structure - shock absorption.

144
Q

What is the Function of the Yolk Sac?

A

Delivers nutrients through vitelline circuit.

145
Q

How is the Allantois Different in Mammals and Birds?

A

Vestigial in humans, large and highly vasculised in birds.

146
Q

What is the Embryonic Origin and Position of the Amniotic Sac?

A

Cavity within the epiblast,

147
Q

What is the Embryonic Origin and Position of the Yolk Sac?

A

Cells of hypoblast migrate to cover inner walls of blastocyst cavity, forms gut

148
Q

What is the Embryonic Origin and Position of the Allantois

A

Cloacal membrane, forms umbilical cord.

Biology (15 decks)

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