Biopsyhcology Flashcards
What are the two main parts of the nervous system in humans?
Central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS)
The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord, while the PNS connects the CNS to the rest of the body.
What two parts make up the central nervous system?
Brain and spinal cord
The brain is responsible for various functions including thinking, perception, and motor control.
What is the primary function of the brain?
Control system of the body
The brain handles thinking, perception, motor control, and regulating bodily processes.
What is the role of the spinal cord?
Connects the brain with the peripheral nervous system
It also facilitates some unconscious movements like reflexes.
What are the two parts of the peripheral nervous system?
Somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system
The somatic nervous system is responsible for voluntary movement, while the autonomic nervous system manages involuntary functions.
What is the function of the somatic nervous system?
Responsible for voluntary movement
It connects the central nervous system to the senses and is under conscious control.
What does the autonomic nervous system regulate?
Transmits information between the CNS and internal organs
It operates involuntarily and is not under conscious control.
What are the two categories of the autonomic nervous system?
Sympathetic and parasympathetic
They have opposing effects on the body, with sympathetic preparing for action and parasympathetic conserving energy.
What is the role of sympathetic functions?
Increase bodily activity to prepare for action
This includes the fight or flight response.
What type of neurons transmit information from the senses to the CNS?
Sensory neurons
They play a critical role in conveying sensory information.
What are the components of a neuron?
Dendrite, cell body, axon, axon terminal
The dendrite receives signals, the cell body processes them, and the axon transmits them.
What is synaptic transmission?
Process of sending information from one neuron to another
It involves neurotransmitters crossing the synaptic cleft.
What are neurotransmitters?
Chemicals that transmit signals between neurons
They can have excitatory or inhibitory effects on the receiving neuron.
What is the effect of serotonin as a neurotransmitter?
Generally inhibitory
It increases the negative charge of the neuron, making it less likely to fire.
What is the effect of glutamate as a neurotransmitter?
Excitatory
It increases the likelihood of the neuron firing.
What are the three main types of neurons?
Sensory neurons, motor neurons, relay neurons
Relay neurons connect other neurons within the CNS.
What is the role of the pituitary gland?
Master gland of the endocrine system
It regulates the release of hormones throughout the body.
What is adrenaline responsible for?
Fight or flight response
It activates the sympathetic nervous system to prepare the body for action.
What happens during the fight or flight response?
Increased heart rate, dilated bronchioles, and pupil dilation
Bodily activities not essential for survival are reduced, such as digestion.
What does hemispheric lateralisation refer to?
Different functions are localized in different hemispheres of the brain
For example, language processing is typically associated with the left hemisphere.
What is the corpus callosum?
Bundle of nerve fibers connecting the two hemispheres of the brain
It allows communication between the left and right hemispheres.
What is the primary function of the motor cortex?
Responsible for voluntary movement
It is located in the frontal lobes of each hemisphere.
What is the function of the somatosensory cortex?
Responsible for sensing physical sensations
It is located in the parietal lobes and processes sensory information from the skin.
What is the role of the visual cortex?
Processes visual information from the eyes
It is located in the occipital lobes and is contralateral.
What does the auditory cortex do?
Responsible for processing sound
It is located in the temporal lobes of each hemisphere.
What is the primary function of the visual cortex?
Processing visual information from the eyes
Located in the occipital lobes of each hemisphere
What does contralateral mean in the context of the visual cortex?
The right hemisphere processes data from the left field of vision and vice versa
Damage to one hemisphere affects perception in the opposite visual field
What is the consequence of damage to the visual cortex in the right hemisphere?
Difficulty perceiving objects to the left
This affects both eyes
What is the primary function of the auditory cortex?
Processing sound
Located in the temporal lobes of each hemisphere
What does contralateral mean in the context of the auditory cortex?
The right hemisphere processes sound from the left ear and vice versa
Damage to one hemisphere affects hearing in the opposite ear
What is Broca’s area responsible for?
Speech production
Located in the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere
What condition is caused by damage to Broca’s area?
Broca’s aphasia (expressive aphasia)
Characterised by slow speech and lack of fluency
What is Wernicke’s area responsible for?
Language comprehension
Located in the temporal lobe
What condition is caused by damage to Wernicke’s area?
Wernicke’s aphasia (receptive aphasia)
Patients produce fluent speech but lack meaningful content
What is a strength of the localisation of function theory?
Evidence from case studies
Example: Phineas Gage and his change in personality after brain damage
What brain imaging technique shows correlations between mental activities and brain areas?
fMRI
Measures blood flow and oxygenation in the brain
What is a weakness of the localisation of function theory?
Higher cognitive processes may not be localised
Example: Lashley’s maze study with rats
What is neuroplasticity?
The brain’s ability to change its physical structure
New connections can form and old ones can be removed
How does neuroplasticity facilitate recovery after trauma?
Other brain areas adapt to take over functions of damaged areas
Example: Danelli et al’s case study of a boy with a removed hemisphere
What is axon sprouting?
The process where neighbouring intact neurons grow extra nerve endings
This helps reconnect with damaged neurons
What is the main function of fMRI?
To record brain activity over time
High spatial resolution but low temporal resolution
What is an EEG?
A scan of the brain’s electrical activity
Uses electrodes attached to the scalp
What is a disadvantage of post-mortem studies?
No dynamic brain activity can be measured
Researchers may have to speculate about connections
What are biological rhythms?
Cycles of activity in the mind and body
Examples include circadian, infradian, and ultradian rhythms
What is an endogenous pacemaker?
Internal body mechanisms that regulate biological rhythms
Example: Suprachiasmatic nucleus
What is an exogenous zeitgeber?
External cues that influence biological rhythms
Example: Sunlight affecting sleep cycles
What is a circadian rhythm?
A biological cycle lasting approximately 24 hours
Example: Sleep/wake cycle
What did Ralph et al (1990) demonstrate regarding circadian rhythms?
Transplanted cells can alter circadian rhythms
Hamsters with a 20-hour rhythm changed the normal 24-hour rhythm
What is a strength of EEG and ERPs?
They enable dynamic measurement of brain activity
Lower cost and higher temporal resolution than fMRI
What are the three categories of biological rhythms?
Circadian, infradian, ultradian
Each has different lengths and examples
What did Siffre’s 1962 experiment involve?
Living in a cave for two months without natural light or a clock
Siffre maintained a regular sleep/wake cycle and circadian rhythm around 25 hours.
How long did Siffre spend in a cave during his 1975 experiment?
Six months
This was a follow-up experiment to the 1962 study.
What did Aschoff and Wever’s 1976 experiment demonstrate?
Participants maintained a circadian rhythm very close to 24 hours despite the absence of natural light
All except one participant were in a World War 2 bunker for four weeks.
In Folkard et al’s 1985 experiment, what was manipulated to affect the participants’ perception of time?
The speed of the clock
The clock was sped up so that a 24-hour day felt like only 22 hours.
What was a key finding from Czeisler et al’s 1982 research on shift workers?
Stable shifts over 21 days improved employee satisfaction and health
Workers were less likely to leave their job compared to those with changing schedules.
What methodological concern is noted regarding research on circadian rhythms?
Research often uses small sample sizes or case studies
Findings may not be valid for the general population.
Define infradian rhythms.
Biological cycles lasting more than 24 hours
An example is the human menstrual cycle.
What is the typical duration of the human menstrual cycle?
28 days
This is an example of an infradian rhythm.
What hormones are crucial to the menstrual cycle?
Estrogen and progesterone
These are endogenous pacemakers controlling the rhythm.
What influence do exogenous zeitgebers have on infradian rhythms?
They can alter menstrual cycles
Stern and McClintock (1998) showed this effect using pheromones.
Define ultradian rhythms.
Biological cycles lasting less than 24 hours
An example is the different stages of sleep.
How many stages are typically involved in a full sleep cycle?
Five stages
Each complete cycle lasts around 90 minutes.
What is the duration of light sleep in the sleep stages?
5-15 minutes
This occurs in stages 1 and 2.
What happens during REM sleep?
High level of brain activity and dreams occur
Body is completely relaxed during this stage.
What is the typical length of deep sleep in the sleep stages?
~40 minutes
This occurs in stage 4 of the sleep cycle.
