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Biopsych Flashcards

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1
Q

Central Nervous System

A

Comprises of the brain and spinal cord.

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2
Q

Peripheral Nervous System

A

Consists of all nerves running to and from the CNS, transmitting messages to and from the body.

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3
Q

Somatic Nervous System

A

Transmits impulses between sensory cells, CNS, and muscle cells.

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4
Q

Autonomic Nervous System

A

Transmits information to and from bodily organs, regulating involuntary actions.

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5
Q

Neuron

A

A nerve cell responsible for transmitting information.

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6
Q

Synapse

A

The gap between two nerve cells where impulses are transmitted.

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7
Q

Neurotransmitter

A

Chemical diffusing across a synapse, transmitting impulses.

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8
Q

Motor Neurons

A

Conduct impulses to muscles or glands and have a cell body, short dendrites, and a long axon.

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9
Q

Sensory Neurons

A

Conduct impulses to the CNS and have a cell body, long dendrites, and a short axon.

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10
Q

Reflex Arc

A

A neural circuit controlling rapid, automatic responses without involving the brain.

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11
Q

Nerve Impulse

A

Consists of resting potential and action potential during impulse transmission.

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12
Q

Myelinated Neurons

A

Neurons with myelin sheath, conducting impulses faster via saltatory conduction.

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13
Q

Neurochemistry

A

Biochemistry of the central nervous system, involving impulse transmission at synapses.

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14
Q

Synaptic Transmission

A

Process of passing nerve impulses across the synaptic gap using neurotransmitters.

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15
Q

Summation

A

Voltage-Gated Calcium Channels

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16
Q

Serotonin

A

Inhibitory neurotransmitter involved in sleep, memory, emotions, and appetite.

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17
Q

Dopamine

A

Neurotransmitter regulating reward, pleasure, movement, and emotional responses.

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18
Q

Reuptake

A

Termination of neurotransmitter effects by presynaptic neuron reabsorption.

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19
Q

Acetylcholine

A

Neurotransmitter regulating cardiac contractions, blood pressure, and glandular secretion.

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20
Q

Noradrenaline

A

Sympathetic neurotransmitter stimulating increased heart rate and blood pressure.

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21
Q

GABA

A

Inhibitory neurotransmitter reducing post-synaptic cell firing.

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22
Q

Saltatory Conduction

A

Faster conduction in myelinated neurons, where action potentials ‘leap’ between nodes.

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23
Q

Sympathetic Division

A

Autonomic branch using noradrenaline to stimulate increased heart rate and blood pressure.

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24
Q

Parasympathetic Division

A

Autonomic branch using acetylcholine to inhibit and reduce heart rate and blood pressure.

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25
Q

Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSP)

A

Positive charge increase in the postsynaptic neuron, increasing likelihood of firing.

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26
Q

Spatial Summation

A

Increase in the strength of EPSPs from multiple synapses on the same postsynaptic membrane.

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27
Q

Temporal Summation

A

Increase in the strength of EPSPs from repeated action potentials at the same synapse.

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28
Q

Inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSP)

A

Negative charge increase in the postsynaptic neuron, decreasing likelihood of firing.

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29
Q

Synaptic Vesicles

A

Contain neurotransmitters released into the synaptic cleft for signal transmission.

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30
Q

Ligand-Gated Ion Channels

A

Receptors on the postsynaptic cell surface activated by neurotransmitters.

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31
Q

Excitation

A

Receptor stimulation causing depolarization by sodium ion release, increasing neuron firing likelihood.

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32
Q

Hyperpolarization

A

Increase in negative charge of postsynaptic neuron due to potassium ion leaving.

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33
Q

Depolarization

A

Increase in positive charge of postsynaptic neuron due to sodium ion rush.

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34
Q

Spatial Summation

A

Generation of large numbers of EPSPs at different synapses on the same postsynaptic membrane.

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35
Q

Temporal Summation

A

Generation of large numbers of EPSPs at the same synapse by action potentials from the presynaptic membrane.

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36
Q

Inhibition

A

Receptor stimulation causing hyperpolarization by potassium ion flowing out, decreasing neuron firing likelihood.

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37
Q

Summation

A

Addition of positive and negative post-synaptic potentials, determining neuron firing likelihood.

38
Q

EPSP

A

Excitatory postsynaptic potential, contributing to neuron excitation.

39
Q

Action Potential

A

Electrical signal allowing neuron communication, formed when neuron firing threshold is reached.

40
Q

why neurons can only transmit information in one direction at a synapse?

A

-the synaptic vesicles containing the neurotransmitter are only present on / released from the presynaptic membrane.
-the receptors for the neurotransmitters are only present on the postsynaptic membrane
-it is the binding of the neurotransmitter to the receptor which enables the signal / information to be passed / transmitted on (to the next neuron)
-diffusion of the neurotransmitters mean they can only go from high to low concentration, so can only travel from the presynaptic to the postsynaptic membrane.

41
Q

Identify two glands that form part of the endocrine system and outline their functions.

A
  • Pituitary gland: Known as the “master gland” due to its influence on other glands and body functions.
    Anterior pituitary gland: Releases ACTH in response to chronic stress, prompting the adrenal glands to release cortisol.
    -Posterior pituitary gland: Releases oxytocin, which plays a role in triggering labor and is crucial for bonding processes.
    ——————–
  • Pineal gland regulates circadian rhythm/sleep-wake cycle.
  • Releases melatonin in darkness to induce sleep.
  • Stops melatonin production in light.
  • Converts melatonin to serotonin to promote wakefulness.
42
Q

Write a brief explanation of synaptic transmission in the brain to help Raoul understand how his drug might work.

A
  • Transmission involves impulses crossing a space or gap between an axon terminus and the adjacent neuron (the synapse/synaptic cleft)
  • Neurotransmitters are chemicals released from vesicles on the presynaptic neuron
    They travel/diffuse across the synapse and lock onto receptor sites on receiving/postsynaptic neuron
  • Some neurotransmitters increase the rate of firing in the receiving neurons eg dopamine and others decrease the rate of firing eg serotonin
  • Psychoactive drugs work by affecting (increasing or inhibiting) the transmission of neurotransmitters across the synapse. Eg SSRIs stop the reuptake of serotonin by the presynaptic neuron and so keeps more serotonin in the synapse for longer leading to calmer balanced mood.
    For full marks there must be some reference to drugs affecting synaptic transmission.
43
Q

Briefly outline how excitation and inhibition are involved in synaptic transmission.

A
  • Neurotransmitters can be excitatory or inhibitory (most can be both but GABA is purely inhibitory).
  • If the neurotransmitter is excitatory then the post synaptic neuron is more likely to fire an impulse.
  • If the neurotransmitter is inhibitory then the post synaptic neuron is less likely to fire an impulse.
  • The excitatory and inhibitory influences are summed, if the net effect on the post synaptic neuron is inhibitory, the neuron will be less likely to ‘fire’ and if the net effect is excitatory, the neuron will be more likely to fire.
44
Q

Fight-or-flight response
1) Reflex response from the ?
2) Generated from the ?
3) It is a?
4) Provides quick bursts of ?
4) also causes impaired ____________ functioning and suppresses the?

A

1) Reflex response from the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system, adapted to help manage physical threats.
2) Generated from the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system.
3) Reflex response adapted to help manage physical threats or stress.
4) Provides quick bursts of energy and lower sensitivity to pain, but also causes impaired cognitive functioning and suppresses the immune system.

45
Q

Sympathetic branch

A

Part of the autonomic nervous system that activates the fight-or-flight response.

46
Q

Chronic stress

A

Ongoing stress triggering the HPA axis, leading to the release of cortisol and impaired cognitive functioning.

47
Q

HPA axis

A

Hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis activated during chronic stress, releasing cortisol and suppressing the immune system.

48
Q

Cortisol

A

Hormone released in response to stress, providing bursts of energy, lower sensitivity to pain, and impaired cognitive functioning.

49
Q

Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)

A

Hormone released by the pituitary gland in response to corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH), stimulating the release of cortisol.

50
Q

Corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH)

A

Hormone released by the hypothalamus in response to stress, causing the pituitary gland to release ACTH.

51
Q

Tend and befriend response (Evaluation)

A

Stress response observed in females, involving nurturing behavior and forming protective alliances with others.

52
Q

Oxytocin

A

Hormone released in females during stress, causing relaxation and decreasing stress, opposing the fight-or-flight response.

53
Q

Freeze response

A

Response prior to fight or flight, involving actively avoiding confrontations and becoming hyper vigilant to signs of danger.

54
Q

SRY gene (Evaluation)

A

Gene related to the development of male biological traits, potentially influencing the fight-or-flight response.

55
Q

Von Dawans et al (2012)

A

Researcher highlighting that stressful situations can lead to cooperative behavior among groups, opposite to typical fight-or-flight responses.

56
Q

Reductionist

A

Perspective that attempts to explain complex phenomena by reducing them to simple, fundamental factors.

57
Q

Deterministic

A

Belief that all events, including human action, are ultimately determined by causes external to the will.

58
Q

Correlational research

A

Investigation into the relationship between variables, without establishing cause and effect.

59
Q
  • Visual centers: Brain regions responsible for?
    .
  • Auditory centers: Areas of the brain involved in processing ?
    .
  • Motor areas: Regions of the brain that control ?
    .
  • Somatosensory areas: Brain regions that process?
    .
  • Language centers:
    • Broca’s area: Responsible for ?
    • Wernicke’s area: Involved in ?
A

1) processing visual information received from the eyes.
.
2) auditory information received from the ears.
.
3) voluntary movements of muscles throughout the body.
.
4) sensory information related to touch, pressure, temperature, and pain from different parts of the body.
.
5) the production of speech and language comprehension and understanding language and speech comprehension.

60
Q

Cerebellum

A

Part of the brain involved in muscle movement coordination and balance.

61
Q

Corpus Callosum

A

Bundle of fibers joining the right and left brain hemispheres, facilitating communication.

62
Q

Laterization

A

Control of physical and psychological functions by a specific brain hemisphere.

63
Q

Cerebral Cortex

A

Outer surface of cerebral hemispheres with 20 billion neurons, responsible for high-level mental functioning.

64
Q

Grey Matter

A

Layer of the cerebral cortex containing neuron cell bodies, dendrites, and axon terminals.

65
Q

Phineas Gage

A

Railway foreman with left frontal lobe brain damage, showing altered personality and instability.

66
Q

Aphasia

A

Inability or impaired ability to understand or produce speech, demonstrating specific language centers in the brain.

67
Q

Expressive Aphasia

A

Inability to produce language due to brain damage in Broca’s area, highlighting its importance in language production.

68
Q

Receptive Aphasia

A

Inability to understand language due to brain damage in Wernicke’s area, emphasizing its role in language comprehension.

69
Q

Brain Plasticity

A

The brain’s ability to reorganize and recover functions, demonstrating potential for functional recovery.

70
Q

Wernicke’s Area

A

Brain region important for language comprehension, as damage can lead to receptive aphasia.

71
Q

Broca’s Area

A

Brain region crucial for language production, as damage can lead to expressive aphasia.

72
Q

Localisation of Function

A

The theory that specific cognitive functions are localized in certain areas of the brain.

73
Q

Dejerine’s Case

A

Demonstrates the complex process of stimulus entering the brain, moving through different structures, and producing a response, highlighting the brain’s interdependent functions.

74
Q

Gender Differences in Brain

A

Studies showing variability in brain area activation between genders, with women having larger Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas.

75
Q

Lateralisation:
1) The concept that the two _______ of the brain have different ____________ and control certain processes or behaviors.
2) The __________ side of the brain processes information from the LEFT half of the body, such as ___________ information from the left eye.
3) The ______ side of the brain processes information from the RIGHT half of the body, such as _________ information from the right eye.

A

1) halves, functions
2) RIGHT, visual
3) LEFT, visual

76
Q

Split Brain Patients:
1) A group of patients who underwent Corpus Callosotomy, where the __________ ____________ is severed to separate the two brain hemispheres and prevent ________________ between them.
2) This procedure was primarily performed to manage frequent and severe __________ fits.

A

1) Corpus Callosum, communication
2) epileptic

77
Q

Key Study: Sperry (1968):
.
1) Aim: To investigate the ___________ _________ of the brain.
2) Procedure: Compared _______ ________ patients to those without hemisphere separation, conducting various activities to observe the performance of different brain hemispheres.

A

1) lateralized functions
2) split brain

78
Q

Sperry (1968) Procedures:
.
1) __________ Tasks: Words or pictures were projected into the left or right visual field, and patients were asked questions about the stimuli.
2) _________ Tasks: Patients performed touch tasks with objects under a screen, relying solely on touch without visual input.

A

1) Visual
2) Tactile

79
Q

Advantages and Disadvantages of Brain Lateralisation:
1) Believed to increase neural ____________ _________ by allowing one hemisphere to engage in a task while the other focuses on a different task.
.
2) __________ __________ for the advantage of brain lateralisation is limited.
.
3) Supporting evidence from Rogers et al (2004) suggests that brain lateralisation enhances the ability to perform multiple tasks simultaneously, as observed in _________.
.
4) Lateralisation has been associated with strengths in certain areas, such as in _____________ and architects, but also with problems like __________. _________ disorders in _____-handed individuals.
.
5) Research indicates that lateralisation of function changes with age, with localized patterns observed in ____________ individuals, but becoming more ___________ across both hemispheres as people age.
.
6) Szaflarski (2006) found that language localization to the left hemisphere decreased with each decade of life after the age of 25, possibly due to compensating for age-related decline in functioning.

A

1) processing capacity
2) Empirical evidence
3) chickens
4) mathematicians, immune system, left
5) younger, bilateral
6)

80
Q

Evaluation: Lateralisation Changes with Age:
.
1) The extent of lateralisation changes with age, with younger individuals exhibiting more lateralisation and a shift to a more bilateral configuration as they age.
2) Szaflarski’s findings suggest that language becomes more lateralised to the left hemisphere in children, but decreases with every passing decade after the age of 25, possibly due to compensating for age-related decline in function.

A
81
Q

Alien Hand Syndrome:
.
1) Alien Hand Syndrome is a condition where one of the ______ acts independently, without the individual’s _________, as if it has a mind of its own.
2) It occurs due to damage to the part of the brain that controls movements and actions.
3) Karen Bryne developed Alien Hand Syndrome after undergoing a ________ _____________ surgery to treat severe epilepsy.
4) The surgery was intended to stop _________ by disconnecting the two halves of her brain, but it resulted in her left hand acting _______________.

A

1) hands, control
2)
3) corpus callosotomy
4) seizures, independently

82
Q

Brain plasticity

A

The brain’s ability to change and adapt as a result of experience and new learning.

83
Q

Neurons

A

Nerve cells that process and transmit information in the brain.

84
Q

Plasticity in the Newborn:
.
1) At the end of the first child birth year, the brain has more ___________ and ___________ than it will have when fully mature, providing support for _____________ to the environment.
.
2) In the first few months and years, the brain is exposed to various stimuli and has to learn to recognize faces, distinguish dangerous situations from safe ones, and learn language, requiring maximal ____________.
.
3) Pathways and networks used regularly will survive and strengthen, while pathways not used will ___ off.

A

1) neurons and synapses, adaptation
2) plasticity
3) die

85
Q

Plasticity in the Adult Brain:
.
1) For many years, it was believed that most brain plasticity stopped at about 20 years of age, but it has been realized that the brain is able to make remarkable recoveries from brain damage in many cases.
.
2) The brain is constantly adapting to its environment by developing new connections and pruning away weaker ones, through exposure to new experiences.

A
86
Q

Studies into Brain Plasticity:
.
1) ________ found that 60-year-olds who learned a new ____, such as juggling, experienced an increase in ____ _______ in the visual cortex of the brain, indicating that new experiences can promote brain ____________.
.
2) _______ et al showed that playing ______-_______ increased grey matter in various areas of the brain, including the hippocampus and cerebellum, resulting in new _________ connections in areas involved in spatial navigation and strategic ___________.
.
3) ____________ can change the brain in the short term and permanently, as found by ____________ et al in Tibetan monks who had higher levels of _________ waves involved in coordination of neural activity after meditation.

A

1) Boyke, skill, grey matter, plasticity.
2) Kuhn, video games, synaptic, planning
3) Meditation, Davidson, gamma

87
Q

Evaluation of Brain Plasticity:
.
1) ______________ et al found increased evidence of the number of __________ in the brains of rats housed in __________ environments compared with rats in lab cages, indicating that more challenge leads to more ______________ and change.
.
2) Research with London ____ _______ and medical students showed changes in specific brain areas related to their __________, suggesting that experience and learning can impact brain structure.
.
3) People who are __________ have a larger parietal cortex, indicating the impact of language learning on brain structure.

A

1) Kempermann, neurons, complex, development
2) taxi drivers, expertise,
3) Bilingual

88
Q

Brain Trauma:
.
1) Common types of brain trauma include physical trauma, cerebral __________, cerebral ___________, and viral or bacterial infections.
.

A

1) hemorrhage, ischemia

89
Q

Functional Recovery:
.
1) Functional recovery is the ability of the brain to ________ the function lost by damage.
.
2) The four main ways in which the body can replace axon function are neuronal ___________, axon ___________, denervation supersensitivity, and recruitment of homologous areas.
.
3) ______ cells have the potential to directly __________ dead or dying cells, secrete growth factors that could rescue injured cells, and form new neural ___________ to link uninjured brain sites with damaged regions.

A

1) replace
2) unmasking, sprouting,
3) Stem, replace, pathways

90
Q

Studies into Functional Recovery:
.
1) Tajiri provided evidence for ____ cells aiding recovery in ____ with brain injury, showing the development of new neuron cells in the brain injury areas after receiving transplanted stem cells.
.
2) Age differences have an impact on plasticity, with ______ age showing less plasticity but still possible, but slower, as concluded by _______ et al.

A

1) stem, rats
2) older, Elbert

91
Q

Constraint-Induced Therapy (CIT):
.
1) CIT studies on monkeys paralyzed on one side after brain damage showed that if the unaffected arm was ___________ ( restricted), the monkey increased the use of the affected arm and made __________ recovery.
.
2) Pulvermuller et al showed that CIT could be effective for language impairments following strokes, by restricting the use of alternative communication methods.

A

1) constrained, significant
2)

Psychology (15 decks)

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