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Biomedical Sciences Flashcards

1
Q

what is the job of the nucleus?

A

transmit and express genetic info

built from DNA - chromatin

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2
Q

what is PKU?

A

faulty gene - no phenylalanine = quantities are toxic to CNS

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3
Q

what is the job of the mitochondria?

A

aerobic respiration

ATP to energy

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4
Q

what is the job of the ribosomoes?

A

RNA/protein

synthesise proteins

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5
Q

what is the job of the endoplasmic reticulum?

A

smooth - makes lipids, steroids, hormones

rough - protein synthesis

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6
Q

what is the job of the golgi apparatus?

A

stores proteins to be transported

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7
Q

what are lyzosomes?

A

contain enzymes

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8
Q

what are microfilaments and microtubules?

A

cytoskeleton

maintain shape of cell

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9
Q

describe plasma membranes

A

selective barrier
hydrophillic head hydrophobic tail
membrane proteins - immunological, receptor for hormones, enzymes, transport

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10
Q

what is passive transport?
active transport?
bulk transport?

A

lipid diffusion, osmosis
NA K pump
endocytosis exocytosis

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11
Q

what are the phases of mitosis?

A 
interphase
prophase
metaphase
anaphase
telophase
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12
Q

what are the phases of meiosis?

A 
prophase 1
metaphase 1
anaphase 1
telophase 1
prophase 2
metaphase 2
anaphase 2
telophase 2
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13
Q

what are the divisions of the nervous system?

A

sensory
motor - voluntary/somatic
involuntary/autonomic - sympathetic/parasympathetc

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14
Q

what are neurones?

neuroglia?

A
  • cells that conduct

- cells that support neurones

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15
Q

what is myelin?

A

produced by schwann cells. Fatty layer around nerve cells - gaps = nodes of ranvier

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16
Q

types of neuroglia?

A
  • astrocytes - blood vessels
  • oligodendorcytes - form myelin
  • microglia - phagocytes
  • ependymal - linin cells
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17
Q

what are the meninges?

A

dura mater
arachnoid mater
pia mater

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18
Q

what is the circulus arteriosus?

A

supplies o2 and glucose to the brain

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19
Q 
job of the cerebrum?
thalamus?
hypothalamus?
cerebellum?
midbrain?
pons?
medulla oblongata?
A
  • intelligence, memory
  • sensation
  • autonomic NS. linked with pituitary
  • balance and equilibrium
  • visual and auditory reflexes
  • cranial nerves
  • resp/BP/hear rate/circulation
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20
Q

what is CSF?

A

forms in ventricles

protection, maintains pressure, shock absorber, lubrication

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21
Q

how many spinal nerves?

A

31

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22
Q

what do the 31 spinal nerves split into?

A
  • 8 cervical
  • 12 thoracic
  • 5 lumbar
  • 5 sacral
  • 1 coccygeal
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23
Q 
cervical plexus supplies?
brachial?
lumbar?
sacral?
cocygeal?
thoracic nerves?
A
  • head/neck/diaphragm
  • skin/muscles in chest area
  • abdomen/pelvis/ankle/foot
  • pelvis, sciatic nerve
  • cocyx
  • ribs and intercostal muscles
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24
Q

job of nasal cavity?

A

filtrate, warm, humidify, smell

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25
where do the adenoids live? | palatine tonsils?
nasopharynx | oropharynx
26
job of the pharynx?
air/foodwar taste, hearing, protection, speech, swallowing - facial artery and veins - vagus/glossopharygeal, sup c plexus
27
describe the larynx?
- hyaline cartilage - thyroid, cricoids, arytenoids - elastic cartilage - epiglottis sound, speech, protection, air passage - sup/inf laryngeal arteries - internal jugular vein vagus and sup c plexus
28
describe the trachea?
16- 20 rings of hyaline cartliage support, bring up mucous, cough, air filter, warm, humidify thyroid artery and inf thyroid vein sup c plexus and vagus nerve
29
describe the bronchi?
right - 3 branches, 3 lobes left - 2 branches, 2 lobes RL bronchial arteries and veins vagus and sup c plexus
30
what are bronchioles?
finest branches of bronchi
31
what are the alveoli?
small air sacs, CO2 O2 exchanged here. External respiration
32
describe how breathing works?
active inhalation passive expiration pause negative pressure in thoracic cavity = resp pump
33
what is elasticity? | compliance?
can lung return to norm shape | how much can lung inflate
34
how many resp cycles per min?
15
35
what is external resp? | internal resp?
exchange of gas between alveoli and blood | exchange of gas between blood and body cells
36
how is co2 excreted?
bicarb ions, dissolved in plasma, in erythrocytes
37
layers of the heart?
pericardium myocardium - muscle endocardium - smooth blood flow
38
AV valves of the heart are?
R - tricuspid | L - mitral
39
how is valve backlfow prevented?
chordae tendinae
40
how does heart contraction happen?
SA node to AV node = ventricles contract
41
how many cardiac cycles per min?
60-80
42
what is Blood pressure?
pressure blood exerts on walls of vessels | 120/80
43
how is bp controlled?
autonomic NS baroreceptors chemoreceptors higher centres in the brain
44
what is the pulse?
distension in an artery wall bc left ventricle contracts
45
what is blood flow controlled by?
autonomic NS
46
layers of artery?
tunica adventitia tunica media tunica intima
47
what are capillaries?
connect arterioles to venules | thin walls for passage of water and small molecules
48
what are veins?
return blood at low pressure back to the heart
49
how do thick vessels recieve blood?
vasa vasorum
50
areas of a kidney?
cortex - capsule around kidney medulla - pyramids hilum - area of blood and lymph supply renal pelvis - recieves urine formed
51
how is urine moved to the ureter?
peristalsis
52
what is the job of a nephron?
to form urine tubule with blind end = bowmans capsule continues to convoluted tubule, loop of henle, distal convoluted tubule, collecting duct
53
what happens to blood passing through the kindey?
blood to glomerulus if filtrated and returned to normal circulation by renal vein
54
job of the kidney?
urine formation water balance and urine output electrolyte imbalance
55
how is rune formed?
selective filtration selective reabsorption secretion
56
composition of urine?
96% water | phosphate, ammonia, K, urea, uric acid, creatinine, Na, Cl
57
direction of urine travel?
hilum to bladder to urethrea
58
how does ingestion happen?
salivary glands produce amylase = bolus | bolus moved to oseophagus and peristalisis to somach
59
phases of swallowing?
buccal phase - voluntary. bolus formation pharyngeal phase - involuntary oseophageal phase - involuntary. Peristalsis
60
action of stomach?
``` store food produce gastric juice muscular action absorption - water, alcohol, lipid sol drugs dissolves iron out of food by HCL acid ```
61
action of gastric acid?
``` water - liquify HCL acid - activates pepsinogen to pepsin = kills microorganisms, bicarb neutralises duodenum enyme action intrinsic factor - absorbs vit B12 mucous - protection ```
62
phases of gastric secretion?
cephalic phase - before food hits stomach gastric phase - food in stomach intestinal phase - secretion slows down
63
what secretes gastric juice?
pariteal cells chief cells mucous secreting cells
64
what is pernicious anaemia?
reduced intrinsic factor
65
action of small intestine?
``` duodenum, jejunum, ileum movement of food secretion of intestinal juice digestion complete protection from bacteria, lymph hormones absorption ```
66
action of the pancreas?
sodium bicarb pancreatic juice exocrine - enzymes endocrine - hormones, insulin
67
action of gall bladder?
acids - emulsify pigments faeces needed for vit k absorption
68
liver action?
``` amino acid breakdown glucose to glycogen de saturates fat heat production secretes bile stores vitamins forms plasma proteins detoxification ```
69
main action of small intestine?
digestion and absorption through villi
70
action of plasma? | cellular component of plasma?
carrier medium | erythrocytes, leucocytes, platelets
71
functions of blood?
``` gas transport nutrients to cells hormone transport defence mechanisms haemostatic ```
72
composition of plasma?
``` 90% water electroyltes nutrients gases waste hormones plasma proteins ```
73
action of water in plasma? | types of plasma proteins?
transport - heat dispersal | - albumins, globulins, fibrinogen
74
action of electrolytes in plasma?
buffer, membrane excitability
75
why is a rbc the shape that it is?
increased surface for diffusion thin = rapid o2 diffusion felxible = small capillaries
76
what is a rbc made up of?
globin - protein | haem - iron containing complex - carries o2, H, NO, CO`
77
how are rbc created?
erythropoiesis - red bm produces cells immature cells reach circulation and mature kidneys regulate this
78
if there is reduced o2 what happens? inreased o2? testosterone release?
increased kidney function reduced kideny function increased erythropoiesis
79
what is a reticulocyte?
immature rbc = reduced o2 capacity. 120 day life span
80
where do rbc's breakdown?
spleen liver bone mareow
81
where are rbc's produced?
rbm of sternum, ribs, upper ends of long bones
82
``` what is nutritional aneamia? pernicious aneamia? aplastic anaemia? renal anaemia? haemorrhagic anaemia? haemolytic anaemia? ```
- iron/folate/vit b12 deficient - vit b12 not absorbed - bone marrow failure - reduced erythropoeitin bc kidney failure - loss of lots of blood - rupture of rbc's
83
what is polycythaemia?
excess rbc primary cause - tumour in bone marrow secondary - reduced o2 = increased erythropoietin excess = thrombus formation
84
what blood type is the universal recipient? | universal donor?
AB | O
85
what is a transfusion reaction?
when blood types are incompatible - agglutination - haemolysis
86
action of WBC's?
phagocytosis identify cancer cells cleaning up dead and injured cells
87
types of leucocytes and actions?
1 - neutrophils - attracted by chemotaxis, stick to foreign substances, 1st line of defence. Diapedesis, pseudopodia, lysosome 2 - eosinophils - associated with allergic reactions, release toxic granules to kill 3 - basophils - heparin and histamine 4 - agranulocytes 1 - monocytes, 2 - lymphocytes 5 - lymphocytes
88
what is a monocyte?
immature macrophage | produced IL 1 - activates t lymphs, increased body temp
89
b lymphocytes are respobsible for what type of immunity?
humoral antibody response | activated b lymphs - plasma cells secrete ig's and memory cells produced
90
action of antibodies?
agglutination antitoxins lysis opsonisation
91
what immunity do t lymphs produce?
cell mediated immunity
92
action of helper t cells? | t suppresor cells?
produce cytokines = promote t lymphs produce antibodies and t lymphs regulate t lymph action
93
where t cells mature? and develop further where?
thymus gland | lymphatic tissue
94
what about thrombocyte allows it to cause haemostasis?
actin and myosin
95
what are the stages of haemostasis?
1 vasoconstriction 2 formation of platelet plug 3 coagulation
96
discuss the stages of haemostasis?
1 - cut vessel - constricts and produce thromboxanes, platelets adhere to vessel wall and release serotonin 2 - platelets attach to collagen and aggregate to produce ADP which attracts more platelets. Positive feedback creates a temporary seal after 6 mins 3 - blood turns from a liquid to a gel. Thrombin turns fibrinogen to fibrin and a fibrin mesh is formed.
97
what are the types of clotting cascade?
intrinsic | extrinsic
98
what is the extrinsic clotting cascade?
10 seconds long tissue damage repair factor III tissue thromboplastin - released by damaged cells
99
what is the intrinsic clotting cascade?
> 10 mins vessel damage factor XII haegman factor - comes from circulation. starts when factor XIII contacts exposed collagen
100
how does clot breakdown happen?
fibrinolysis | factor x turns plasminogn to plasmin
101
what factors affect the clotting time?
Vit K levels - needed for synthesis of clotting factors thrombocytopenia haemophilia drugs - aspirin warfarin
102
what can cause necrosis?
radiation therapy bisphosphonates spont/result of trauma
103
what are the 5 signs of acute inflammation?
rubor - redness - increased vascularity calor - heat - increased blood flow and cytokines dolor - pain - stretch bc swelling, bradykinin tumor - swelling - fluid exudate functio laesa - loss of function
104
what happens during the acute inflammation period?
defence mechanism brings proteins, cells and fluids to area of damage breakdown of damaged tissue remove debris
105
what is in the inflammatory exudate?
``` immunoglobulins fibrin polymorphs lymphocytes plasma mononuclear cells ```
106
what cells are involved with acute inflammation? | chronic?
neutrophils | lymphs, plasma cells, macrophages
107
what are the 3 phases of acute inflammation?
initial vascular increased vascular permeability/exudate forms cellular phase
108
what happens in the intial inflammation phase?
triple response of lewis - flush - dull red line - cap dilation - flare - red irreg zone - arterial dilation - wheal - zone of odeama - fluid exudate = increased permeability of exudate
109
what happens during vascular permeability and exudate formation phase?
- toxins/physical agents causing necrosis = leakage chem mediators cause swelling = large intracellular gaps = leakage
110
what is the cellular phase?
neutrophils migrate to area
111
what are the response times of acute inflammation?
1. immediate - 30-60mins. Histamine release 2. delayed - 2-3 hours, lasts over 8 hours. Dead neutrophils, bradykinin, complement 3. immediate but prolonged - >24 hours, direct necrosis of epithelium
112
what is the role of the lymphatic system?
limit local oedema | carries antigens to nodes for lymphocyte recognition
113
what are the sequale of acute inflammation?
resolution suppuration organisation - damage replaced by granulation tissue chronic inflammation
114
why might chronic inflammation occur?
``` de novo progression from acute repeated episodes of acute 1. resistant infectious organisms 2. microorgans that persist in damaged regions 3. irritant non living foreign objects 4. poss normal tissue 5. unknown ```
115
features of chronic inflammation?
macrophages, lymphocytes, plasma cells tissue destruction fibrous tissue balance of healing and destruction
116
how do macrophages and lymphocytes accumulate at the wound?
recruitement from circulation local proliferation prolonged survival
117
what is the role of cytokines?
recruit macrophages, stimulate phagocytes
118
how can chronic inflammation appear?
``` chronic ulcer chronic abscess cavity thickening of wall granulomatous inflammation fibrosis ```
119
sequlae of chronic inflammation?
resolution regeneration repair
120
what is healing by primary intention?
damaged edges in close proximity and minimal damage 1. inflammation 2. proliferation 3. maturation and remodelling
121
discuss the stages of healing by primary intention?
1 - haemostasis - clot controls bleeding. Inflammation phase - bacteria and debris removed by phagocytes and cytokines 2- fibroblasts enter wound, angiogenesis - new capillaries. collegen deposition and granulation tissue. epithelialisation, contraction 3- scar tissue replaces fibrous tissue. Rearrangement of collagen, strenghtens. apoptosis - cells not needed.
122
what is healing by secondary intention?
ongoing tissue damage, significant tissue loss, edges of wound brought together`
123
describe secondary intention healing?
can lead to tissue damage if lasts too long, lasts as long as debris is in wound epithelial cells proliferate from edges to centre can last a long time
124
what is fibrosis and what are its effects?
scar tissue formed when there is a large loss of tissue | - adhesions, fibrosis, shrinkage
125
what are local factors that affect healing?
persisting infection, poor blood supply excessive movement, irradiation, corticosteroids
126
what are systemic factors that affect healing?
age, nutritional deficiencies, metabolic diseases, malignancies,systemic drugs
127
how do extractions heal?
by secondary intention wide seperation of wound edges = large haematoma including mucosa and bone
128
stages of healing after XLA?
1 - inflammation - coagulation. PLatelets form platelet plug and attract immune mediators. in the first week granulation tissue forms and bone resorbs at the socket margins 2- fibroblats and ep cells from PDL, bone and g mucosa migrate and regenerate accross the defect. 3 - woven bone is remodelled and cortical/cancellous bone forms. Reduced height of alv bone. Socket obliterated 20-30 weeks post XLA
129
what happens 2 weeks after an XLA?
epithelial continuity resumes at 10-14 days. Osteoblasts appear at base of socket. Granulation tissue is replaced by woven bone
130
what happens 4-6 weeks after an XLA?
resorption of socket walls. Disappearance of lamina dura
131
what is the non specific immune response?
physical/chem/cellular immunity that responds to antigens. 1st time encounter - defence at body surface - phagocytosis - natural antimicrobial substances - inflammatory response
132
what is the specific immune response?
how body deals with a specific antigen | distinguishes between self and non self cells by MHC
133
what is humoral immunity?
antibody mediated
134
how do antibodies protect the body?
help immune cells ingest antigens inactivate toxins attack bac/viruses activate complement
135
what are antibodies formed of?
glycoproteins - 4 polypeptide chains - 2 long, 2 short
136
``` IgA action? IgD? IgE? IgG? IgM? ```
- lie in mucous membranes, blood, saliva, breastmilk - activates basophils and mast cells - immediate allergic reactions - secondary antibody response - deal with primary encounters
137
what are modes of action of antibodies?
agglutination opsonisation lysis antotoxins
138
what are types of complement pathway?
- classical pathway - antibody dependent | - alternative pathway - antibody independent
139
action of complement?
opsonisation, chemotaxis, increased phagocytosis, agglutination, lysis, ab formation
140
what is active disease? | passive disease?
natural - had disease artificial - vaccines natural - mother to baby immunity artificial - ready made antibodies
141
what is type 1 hypersensitivity? type 2? type 3? type 4?
- imediate IgE release - Anaphylaxis - cytotoxic - immediate. antobodies against self cells. - immune complex mediated - 4-6 hours. Excessive amounts of complexes/not all cleared away - delayed type - 24-48-72 hour onset. Over reaction of T lymphs to antibodies
142
what is acromegaly?
excess growth hormone once plates
143
what is gigantism?
over production of growth hormone in childhood before long bone epiphysis close
144
what is achondroplasia?
most common type of dwarfism. defect in cartilage formation/div of cells at epiphyseal plates
145
what is pituitary dwarfism?
growth hormone deficiency
146
what is hyperplasia?
increased sixe bc increased cell number | reversible with removal of stimuli
147
what is hypertrophy?
increased cell size | response to stimuli bc increased functional activity. physiological or pathological.
148
what is hypoplasia?
failure to achieve correct size during development
149
what is aplasia?
full failure of development of an organ
150
what is atrophy?
partial or complete wasting of part of the body. reduced cell size, increased apoptosis physiological - disuse of muscle pathological - result of disease
151
what is a haematoma?
tumour like lesion from cells which are normally present, benign and normal differentiation but normal architecture
152
what is a cyst?
pathological cavity and fluid
153
what is metaplasia?
one cell type turning into another reversible response to irritation
154
what is dysplasia?
pre malignant state | aberrent differentiation
155
what is neoplasia?
genetic alterations = loss of norm control of cell growth
156
how are tumours classified?
- behaviour - benign/malignant | - origin - ep/CT/lymphoid tissue
157
what is a carcinoma? | sarcoma?
- malignant epithelial neoplasm | - connective tissue
158
what is a benign tumour like?
slow growing/ non invasive/well defined/differentiated/dont metastasise problem bc pressure and destruction
159
what is a carcinoma in situ?
malignant signs but no invasion/metastasis
160
what are malignant tumours like?
rapid growth, invade, poorly defined and differentiated
161
where is a carcinoma more likely? how does it spread? age group? sarcoma?
- epithelium, lymph spread,, older | - connective tissue, blood spread, younger
162
what is a papilloma? adenoma? sqaumous cell carcinoma? adenocarcinoma?
- non glandular ep - glandular - non glandular malignant - glandular malignant
163
what are benign blood vessel cancers? malignant?
- haemangioma | - angiosarcoma
164
``` what are benign fat tumours? cartilage? osteoma? angioma? fibroma? ```
- lipoma//liposarcoma - chondroma//chondrosarcoma - osteoma//osteosarcoma - angioma//angiosarcoma - fibroma//fibrosarcoma
165
structure shape of benign tumour, malignant?
- benign - sessile, pedunculated, papillary | - malignant - fungating, ulcerated, annular
166
tx of benign tumours? malignant?
- surgical excission, enucleation | - surgery/chemo/radio
167
what are types of carcinogens?
chemicals, environmental factors,UV light, ionizing radiation, angiogenic viruses
168
how does metastatic spread happen?
- lymphatic - haematogenesis - transcoloemic - implantation
169
cancers of the oral cavity?
- papilloma - white bc keratin - fibroma - benign fibrous - SCC - most common primary malignancy metastasis to nodes of neck - verroucous carcinoma - form of SCC - BCC - sun exposure - pleomorphic adenoma - s.gland - ameloblastoma - lipoma - liposarcoma - kaposi's sarcoma - osteosarcoma - leukaemia - lymphoma - haemangioma
170
what is the job of the lymphatic circulation?
``` collects tissue fluid/ maintains fluid balance plasma proteins into the bloodstream tissue drainage immunity/defence absorption in small intestine ```
171
what is in lymph?
clear, colourless fluid, no plasma proteins, lymphocytes
172
where does the thoracic duct empty into?
right lymphatic duct into subclavian veins
173
what is MALT?
mucosa associated lymphoid tissue collections of lymphoid in GI tract peyers patches - small intestine tonsils
174
what is the job of the lymph nodes?
filtering phagocytosing proliferation of lymphocytes
175
what is reticular and lymphatic tissue?
macrophages and lymphocyte
176
what is the job of the spleen?
phagocytosis blood reservoir termination of RBC's
177
types of hormones?
1- proteins/peptides/modified amino acids | 2- steroids
178
posterior section of pituitary gland does? | anterior section?
- nervous tissue - vasopressin/oxycontin | - glandular - trophic/gonadotrophic
179
hypothalamus releases what?
- vasopressin - enhances water absorption | - oxycontin - contraction of uterine smooth muscle
180
what does the ant portion of the pituitary gland produce?
``` thyroid stimulating - stimulates thyroid adrenocorticotrophic hormone - cortisol follicle stimulating - sperm production lutenising - ovulation/testosterone prolactin - breast development and milk ```
181
types of thyroid hormones?
thyroxine | triiodothyronine/calcitonin
182
what do thyroid hormones control?
mental and physical development healthy skin/hair nerve fibre excitability control of BMR
183
job of calcitonin?
reduced blood calcium levels | produced by c cells
184
job of parathyroid gland?
parathyroid hormone - regulates the level of calcium + help of calcitonin
185
job of PTH and calcitonin?
increased renal calcium re absorption mobilise calcium from bones stimulate calcium absorption inhibits renal absorption
186
job of adrenal cortex?
outer layer | corticosteroid production - influence and regulate salt and water balance
187
what is the job of the adrenal medulla?
catecholamines - epinephrine
188
cortex produces? | medulla produces?
- mineralcorticoids, glucocorticoids, sex hormones | - adrenlaine, noradrenaline
189
pancreas produces?
insulin/glucagon
190
endocrine cells?
iselts of langerhans - alpha = glucagon - beta = insulin - delta - somatostatin - gamma - pancreatic polypeptide
191
thymus job? | pineal gland job?
- T lymphocytes | - melatonin
192
serotonin job? histamine job? prostaglandins? erythropoeitin?
- haemostasis, intestinal secretio - mast cells/basophils - inflammation, pain production - erythropoiesis

1st year (8 decks)

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