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Biology Test 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the function of the skeleton?

A

support and provide structure

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2
Q

What is the definition of the cytoskeleton?

A

A network of protein filaments that extends throughout the cytoplasm

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3
Q

Functions of the cytoplasm

A

1) Maintain shape
2) Organize Cellular components
3) Interact with the environment ECM
4) Aid in movement

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4
Q

How does ECm and cytoskeleton interact?

A

Cytoskeleton interacts by being bound through adaptor protein, attached though integrin, to fibronectin, to collagen fiber

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5
Q

What are 3 types of protein filaments?

A

Intermediate Filaments
Microtubules
Microfilaments

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6
Q

True or False. All protein filaments are made with the same proteins.

A

False. They all have slightly different function so made with different proteins.

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7
Q

Which filament has the largest diameter?

A

Microtubules

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8
Q

Which filaments are polar (for direction)

A

Microtubules and microfilaments

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9
Q

Which filament is the most durable of the 3?

A

Intermediate Filaments

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10
Q

What is the main function of intermediate filaments?

A

withstand the mechanical stress that occurs when cells are stretched

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11
Q

Where are intermediate filaments found?

A

Surrounding the nucleus, anchored to the plasma membrane at desmosomes, found with the nucleus

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12
Q

What is the structure of Intermediate filaments?

A

Rope-like:long strand twisted together to provide tensile strength
N and C-terminal Head with an alpha helical rod

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13
Q

Two intermediate filament proteins wrap around each other to form what?

A

coiled-coil dimer

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14
Q

2 dimers interact to form what?

A

tetramer

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15
Q

How are filaments formed from tetramers?

A

Tetramers bind end to end and side by side to form the filament (through non-covalent bonding)

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16
Q

Where are Intermediate filaments generally found?

A

cells that are subject to mechanical stress such as Neurons, Muscle cells, Epithelial cells

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17
Q

What are the four main classes of Intermediate Filaments?

A

Keratin
Vimentin
Neurofilaments
Nuclear Lamins

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18
Q

Where are keratin filaments found?

A

Epithelial-gut and skin

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19
Q

Where are Vimentin Filaments found?

A

connective tissue, muscle, and glial cells

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20
Q

Where are Neurofilaments found?

A

neurons

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21
Q

Where are Nuclear Lamins found?

A

nucleus of ALL animal cells

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22
Q

What class of Intermediate Filaments is the only class to have a 2-D structure?

A

Nuclear Lamins

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23
Q

What is the structure of microtubules?

A

Long, relatively rigid, hollow tubes of protein

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24
Q

Where do microtubules grow/ anchored at

A

centrosome

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25
Q

What do microtubules create as they extend out from centrosome?

A

system of “tracks” that provide mechanism of transport for all things

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26
Q

What is the function of microtubules?

A

Anchors membrane bound organelles (mitochondria-video)

Guides TRANSPORT withing the cell, not random diffusion

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27
Q

How does a cell squeeze through an epithelial cell?

A

First breaks down and then reforms on other side

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28
Q

What are example of microtubules?

A

Mitotic spindle

Core of eukaryotic cilia and flagella

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29
Q

What protein is microtubule made of?

A

Tubulin

  • functions as heterodimers
  • alpha
  • beta
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30
Q

How many tubulin dimers does it take to go around 1 microtubule?

A

13

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31
Q

Each microtubule has what?

A

Polarity (directionality)

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32
Q

Which end of the microtubule is minus and which is positive?

A

Beta-minus

Alpha-plus

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33
Q

Which end, alpha or beta, of microtubule is imbedded in centrosome?

A

Minus

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34
Q

Which end of the microtubule grows?

A

plus

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35
Q

What is it called when microtubules grow, shrink, grow, etc?

A

Dynamic instability

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36
Q

Dynamic instability is what?

A

When microtubules grow, shrink, grow, etc

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37
Q

Movement along the microtubules is dependent upon what?

A

motor proteins

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38
Q

How do microtubules get its ATP?

A

Through hydrolyze of ATP

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39
Q

What are the two motor protein families?

A

Kinesins

Dyneins

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40
Q

Kinesins move cargo on the microtubules which direction?

A

Toward plus end

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41
Q

Dyneins move cargo on the microtubules which direction?

A

Minus end (think down)

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42
Q

What filament is found in all eukaryotic cell?

A

Microfilaments

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43
Q

Why are microfilaments essential?

A

For movement of cell surface and cell division

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44
Q

Microfilaments comprise what four main structures?

A

Contractile units:muscle cells
Microvilli: small projections from intestinal cells
Finger like protrusions found in immune cells
Contractile ring: aids in cell division

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45
Q

Unlike microtubules, microfilaments are what three things?

A

thinner, flexible, and shorter

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46
Q

T/F There are more microfilaments in the cell than microtubules

A

True

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47
Q

What is the structure of microfilaments?

A

Twisted chain of identical actin proteins, have directionality, found in bundles and networks (not as single filaments)

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48
Q

Microfilament growth is…

A

similar to microtubules
faster at plus end
dynamic assembly/dissassembly

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49
Q

What is a cell cortex?

A

when cross-linking proteins keep actin filaments in a meshwork just below the membrane

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50
Q

How do cells function as the building blocks of multicellular organisms?

A

Extracellular matrix

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51
Q

Cells are organized into what?

A

tissues

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52
Q

What are the four main types of tissue?

A

Muscle
Connective
Epithelial
Nervous

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53
Q

Tissues are composed of two things…

A

cells and extracellular matrix

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54
Q

T/F There is a lot of ECM in bone and tendons?

A

True

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55
Q

T/F There is a lot of ECM in muscle and skin?

A

False

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56
Q

Connective tissue is mostly occupied by what?

A

ECM

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57
Q

What carries the mechanical load of the tissue?

A

ECM

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58
Q

What makes up the ECM and provides this “strength”

A

collagen

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59
Q

In what types of cells is collagen found?

A

In all multicellular animals

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60
Q

How many varieties of collagen are there in humans?

A

20 different

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61
Q

Collagen makes up what percent of total protein in the body?

A

25%

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62
Q

Where is collagen chiefly found?

A

proteins in bone, tendon, and skin

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63
Q

What is collagen’s structure?

A

Three collagen chains wind together to form a triple-helical structure

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64
Q

The triple helices of collagen for polymers called

A

collagen fibrils

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65
Q

Many collagen fibrils pack together to form

A

collagen fiber

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66
Q

What are collagen producing cells?

A

Fibroblasts

Osteoblasts

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67
Q

Where are fibroblasts found?

A

in skin, tendon, etc

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68
Q

where are osteoblasts found?

A

Bone

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69
Q

Do cells produce collagen intracellularly or externally?

A

intracellularly then secrete it outside the cell

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70
Q

What drives the formation of collagen?

A

Intermolecular forces, happens spontaneously

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71
Q

What is collagen produced by?

A

Ribosomes

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72
Q

How does the cell keep the collagen from forming fibers INSIDE the cell?

A

secretes collagen as “procollagen” and then once outside cuts off the end by collagen proteinases that allows them to assemble

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73
Q

Defects in production or assembly of collagen can lead to what diseases

A

Ehlers-Danlos and Osteogenesis Imperfecti

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74
Q

What is responsible for organizing the collagen fibers found in ECM

A

The cell is responsible for its own area

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75
Q

Cells are connected to collagen through what?

A

fibronectin

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76
Q

What is fibronectin?

A

a protein specifically that connects collagen to integrin

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77
Q

Fibronectin is connected to the cell through an integral membrane called…

A

integrin

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78
Q

What interacts with the cytoskeleton (actin filament)

A

intracellular domain of integrin

79
Q

What provides hydrated substance around joints, fills spaces and creates a gel-like substance in connective tissues?

A

Proteoglycans

80
Q

Are proteoglycans hydrophillic or hydrophobic?

A

hydrophillic

81
Q

How are cells usually connected to each other?

A

With cell junctions

82
Q

What are the three types of cell junctions?

A

Tight, Gap, and Adhesive

83
Q

What are tight junctions?

A

Create a seal between neighboring cells, cells are packed and water tight

84
Q

What are Gap Junctions?

A

Allow passage of small water-soluble ions and molecules in the cytosol

85
Q

What are Adhesive Junctions?

A

Connect filaments of one cell to those in an adjacent cell

86
Q

What are the 4 stages of Aerobic Respiration?

A

1) Glycolysis
2) TCA cycle
3) Electron Transport
4) ATP synthesis

87
Q

After glycolysis, where is the free energy found?

A

3 Coenzymes generated

88
Q

What is the largest organelle other than the nucleus?

A

Mitochondria

89
Q

TCA cycle is also called…

A

Krebs Cycle or Citric Acid Cycle

90
Q

What does the TCA cycle do?

A

metabolizes Acetyl-CoA

- carbon ecetyl group attached to carrier molecule

91
Q

Where does acetyl CoA come from (2 things)

A

Pyruvate

Breakdown of fatty acids

92
Q

The TCA cycle steps…

A

1) entry of 2-Cs
2) release of 2 Cs (CO2)
3) Regeneration of oxaloacetate

93
Q

The TCA cycle involves how many oxidation steps?

A

4 that involve reduction of Coenzymes

94
Q

The Oxidation of Coenzymes will later generate what?

A

ATP

95
Q

Where does energy come from in anaerobic respiration?

A

oxidation steps

96
Q

What is Oxidative decarboxylation?

A

PDH catalyzes an oxidation and a decarboxylation

97
Q

How many molecules of ATP are made during 1 cycle?

A

1

98
Q

How many molecules of ATP are made during TCA cycle with 1 molecule of glucose?

A

2 molecules

99
Q

How many times does TCA cycle proceed for each molecule of glucose?

A

twice

100
Q

How many ATPs have been made from glycolysis and TCA cycle?

A

4

101
Q

Where do the 10NADHs come from?

A

6 from TCA cycle
2 from glycolysis
2 before TCA cycle

102
Q

T/F Amino acids (catabolized proteins) can enter the TCA cycle

A

True

103
Q

What is the process called to reoxidize the coenzymes and transfer the electrons to OXYGEN?

A

electron transport

104
Q

Re-oxidation of NADH and FADH2 are highly what?

A

exergonic

105
Q

What is the free energy value of reoxidation of NADH?

A

-52.4 kcal/mol

106
Q

What is the free energy value of re-oxidation of FADH2

A

-45.9 kcal/mol

107
Q

What are the byproducts of aerobic metabolism?

A

Water and CO2

108
Q

Where is the byproduct of Water produced in aerobic metabolism?

A

Electron Transport System

109
Q

Where is the byproduct of CO2 produced in aerobic metabolism?

A

TCA cycle

110
Q

In aerobic respiration, where are respiratory complexes located?

A

inner mitochondrial membrane

111
Q

As electrons are passed through the transport chain, what occurs.

A

Protons are pumped into the inner membrane space creating a huge gradient

112
Q

What proteins are mostly involved in the steps of electron transport?

A

cytochromes

113
Q

What complex does FADH skip

A

complex 1

114
Q

Electrons are transferred from complexes of what to what

A

lower E0 to complexes with a Greater E0

115
Q

What has the highest E0 and is the final electron acceptor?

A

Oxygen

116
Q

What is E0

A

the reduction potential:the affinity a compound has for electrons

117
Q

How many protons pumped does 1 NADH make?

A

10 H+

118
Q

How many protons does FADH2 make?

A

6H+

119
Q

How many protons does it need to make an ATP molecule?

A

3

120
Q

How many ATPs can a NADH molecule give?

A

3

121
Q

How many ATPs can a FADH2 molecule give?

A

2

122
Q

Before crossing through the membrane, what does the NADH molecule go through?

A

ATP synthase

123
Q

How many ATPs are made in total from Aerobic Oxidation of Glucose?

A

38 ATPs

124
Q

Glycolysis yields how much CO2?

A

0

125
Q

How much CO2 is made in Pyruvate Oxidation

A

2

126
Q

How much CO2 is made in TCA cycle?

A

4

127
Q

What is regulated in aerobic metabolism and why?

A

Pyruvate Dehydrogenase. It’s at the beginning so it stops right away if not needed and you don’t waste energy

128
Q

In muscle contraction, what is needed?

A

Prior: Nerve Triggers
During: Actin, Myacin, sliding of the filament

129
Q

What does the body need during muscle contraction?

A

ATP energy

130
Q

What cells require energy?

A

ALL

131
Q

What is energy? (definition)

A

The ability to cause change or do work

132
Q

What is energy not?

A

A feeling

133
Q

Why is energy needed?

A

1) Synthetic work: Biosynthesis
2) Mechanical work: changes in location within a cell or movement of an entire cell
3) Concentration work: movement of molecules against a concentration gradient
4) Electrical work: movement of molecules against an electrochemical gradient
5) Heat: energy is needed to maintain body temp
6) Light: energy is needed to produce light

134
Q

In concentration work, what does not require energy?

A

When flowing from high to low gradient

135
Q

What term do we measure energy changes?

A

calories (cal)

136
Q

1 calorie is equal to the amount of what?

A

the amount of energy needed to raise 1 gram of water by 1°C

137
Q

What is thermodynamics?

A

Study of energy flow that accompanies chemical and physical processes.

138
Q

How does the body get energy?

A

Metabolizing in which the end product is ATP

139
Q

What is the most useful concept in thermodynamics that applies to biology?

A

Free energy (G)

140
Q

What was free energy named after?

A

Gibbs

141
Q

What is delta G?

A

Change in free energy

142
Q

What measure is free energy given in?

A

spontaneity of a reaction

143
Q

What does delta H mean?

A

enthalpy

144
Q

What is delta S mean?

A

entropy

145
Q

What is enthalpy?

A

the specific energy from a reaction

146
Q

What is entropy?

A

the overall order of a system itself

147
Q

What is a reaction with a negative delta G called?

A

exergonic (energy yielding/ gives)

148
Q

Can exergonic reactions proceed on its own?

A

Yes

149
Q

exergonic reactions are what?

A

Spontaneous (proceed on its own)

150
Q

What is a reaction with a positive delta G

A

endergonic

151
Q

Can endergonic reactions proceed on its own?

A

No

152
Q

How many kcal of energy is stored in one molecule of ATP

A

7.3 kcal

153
Q

What is the stored form of energy in the body?

A

ATP

154
Q

T/F Delta G only indicates whether a reaction CAN proceed, nothing to whether it will proceed.

A

T

155
Q

What is the magnitude (number) of delta G indicate?

A

How much energy will be released as the reaction proceeds

156
Q

All cellular reactions are mediated by a category of proteins called

A

enzymes

157
Q

Even if the free energy change is negative, most biological reactions do NOT occur in the absence of

A

an enzyme

158
Q

What is the activation of energy?

A

The energy required to get the reactants to the higher energy transition state

159
Q

In order for reaction to proceed, reactants must reach what?

A

higher energy transition state

160
Q

How do enzymes affect the activation energy barrier?

A

They lower it

161
Q

What do enzymes do in a reaction?

A

bring the reactants close together and in a conformation that is favorable for the reaction to proceed

162
Q

What are enzymes also known as?

A

Catalysts

163
Q

Do enzymes change the property?

A

No they just push for the reaction to proceed

164
Q

Do reactions occur slower or faster with enzymes as catalysts?

A

faster

165
Q

What are the 3 properties of catalysts?

A

1) increases reaction rate by lowering activation energy requirement
2) Forms transient complexes with reactants by binding them in a manner that facilitates their interaction
3) Catalysts only change the RATE at which a reaction proceeds, does not change the reaction properties

166
Q

What is the active site:

A

specific location on an enzyme where a few amino acids interact with substrate

167
Q

What is the perfect temperature for human enzymes to peak efficiency?

A

37C

168
Q

what is the physiological pH level of our bodies?

A

7.4

169
Q

Binding of substrate to enzyme is dependent on what?

A

Random collision

170
Q

Once the substrate collides with active site, it is bound usually through what?

A

ionic or hydrogen bonds

171
Q

Once binding occurs what changes?

A

conformation (shape)

172
Q

What does the change in shape do?

A

distorts the substrate to get it to the transition state

173
Q

Enzyme inhibitors can be what?

A

reversible or irreversible

174
Q

How does irreversible enzymes bind?

A

covalently

175
Q

What is irreversible inhibitors usually to the cell?

A

toxic

176
Q

How do reversible inhibitors bind?

A

non-covalently so inhibitor can dissociate from the enzyme

177
Q

the level of inhibition depends on what?

A

concentration of inhibitor

178
Q

Reversible inhibitors can be what? (2 kinds)

A

competitive or non-competitive

179
Q

What is reversible competitive inhibitors?

A

binds to the active site and competes with substrate

180
Q

What is reversible non-competitive inhibitors?

A

Binds to the enzyme surface at a location other than the active site and cause a conformation change

181
Q

What is feedback inhibition?

A

where products of a reaction or maybe at the end will feed back and inhibit one of the enzymes in the pathway

182
Q

Cells don’t function efficiently if what

A

enzymes are all ON at the same time

183
Q

Enzymes are regulated in the cell by what

A

non-competitive mechanisms

184
Q

what are the two non-competitive mechanisms that enzymes are regulated by?

A

Allosteric regulation “another shape”

Covalent modification

185
Q

What is allosteric regulation?

A

where something binds and the enzyme changes shape

186
Q

What is covalent modification?

A

cell has mechanisms to break covalent bonds as well as enzymes to take the off

187
Q

The cell will usually regulate what enzyme and why?

A

Th First enzyme so it saves energy and materials

188
Q

Allosteric Regulation works by binding what

A

allosteric effectors

189
Q

Where does allosteric regulation bind?

A

allosteric site

190
Q

The effector may be what?

A

allosteric inhibitor or allosteric activator

191
Q

T/F Covalent modification is not very common mechanism of enzyme regulation in the cell

A

False

192
Q

Enzyme is affected by addition or removal of chemical groups such as…

A

phosphate
methyl
acetyl

193
Q

Covalent modification is often times what

A

reversible

Biology (6 decks)

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